15. What was Martin Van Buren's essential characteristic? 16. What new social phenomena led to William Henry Harrison's death from the exhaustion of over-fatigue?

17. What was John Tyler's career as president?

18. What did the first half century of our national existence demonstrate regarding our constitution?

19. Compare the presidents of the period with other public

men.

20. What was Hamilton's achievement?

21. Whom did he represent?

22. What was his political philosophy?

23. What was the nature of the service of John Marshall to his country?

24. Who were the greatest men of the second, third, and fourth decades of the past century?

25. For what did Henry Clay stand?

26. What section and what interests did John C. Calhoun represent?

27. Characterize Daniel Webster as man and statesman? 28. Name some of the greatest political events of the period 1789-1845.

29. Name two great practical questions connected with the one great theoretical question, the meaning of the constitution.

30. What principle did the Federalists represent?

31. Did the constitution-makers foresee political parties? What device of theirs shows the fact?

32. What principle did the Democratic-Republicans represent? What was the history of this principle?

33. How did the Whig party begin?

34. What was the typical change in politics in the period, 1789-1845?

35. Mention minor changes.

the constitution-makers?

Were these anticipated by

36. What marks the end of the period?

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History of Education.

Rousseau.-1712-1778.

By AMOS M. KELLOGG.

EAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU was a most remarkable man; his influence at the end of a century and a half is still felt. He had so much to do with breaking down the old ideals and setting up new ones, that tho not a teacher, he occupies a very prominent position among educators. This statement shows that education is far, far more than mere lesson hearing, for here was a man that knew nothing at all about lesson hearing, and yet was able to discourse on education in a most attractive and forcible way. "It has been given to few men to exert with their thought an influence so deep and persuasive as that of Rousseau." --DAVIDSON.

66

Rousseau did not begin with discussing education but sociology; he wrote the "Origin of Inequality Among Men," "The New Heloise," "The Social Contract," and Emile." It is in the last that he gives his views upon education. Emile is the name of a child who is imagined to be directed from infancy to manhood in accordance with the ideas of Rousseau. No sooner had Emile appeared than a storm of indignation was aroused. The Catholic church, then the state church, opposed it because he set all its dogmas at defiance; the unbelievers in religion, then a large and powerful party (Voltaire, Diderot, &c.), opposed it because he showed religion was a necessity in the education of Emile.

The book was condemned and the author ordered to be arrested. He betook himself to Switzerland, but was forbidden to enter Geneva; he went to Motiers and was driven thence to England; then back to France; then wandering about for some years, in 1770 he returned to Paris, then in 1778 to Eremenonville (twenty miles from Paris) where he died.

Rousseau assumes in Emile that education ought to be the development of nature. He had in previous

writings declared that the evil that exists came from civilization. He now proposes that Emile shall be reared so as not to be corrupted by the vices of civil society. He does not propose to do anything positively, but to ward off evil and allow the good that is native in the child (according to his theory) to be free to unfold. He

opens "Emile" by saying, "Everything is right as it comes from the hands God." All the social institutions would stifle nature in him, without putting anything in its place.

He declares that education is obtained from three sources (1) Nature, (2) men, (3) things; a complete education is possible when the effects from these three sources are in harmony. All education must conform to nature; this may not fit Emile for citizenship, but he must be first of all a man. This is what nature intends. "Nature calls him to the human life; to live is the craft I desire to teach him; when he leaves my hands he will first of all be a man; all that a man may be; whatever changes fortune may have in store for him he will always be in his place."

Rousseau would have the child allowed the utmost freedom of limb and voice; father and mother must unite their efforts to develop the nature of the child. He believes the end of life to be happiness; to live as the animals do. See that the child is happy is his great maxim: "Early education must, therefore, be purely negative. It consists not in teaching virtue or a truth, but in guarding the heart from vice and the mind from error. If you could guide your pupil, healthy and robust to the age of twelve, without his being able to distinguish his right hand from his left, the eyes of his understanding would open to reason at your first lessons; he would soon become in your hands the wisest of men."

In pressing forward his plan of merely developing the nature of the child he would exclude all learning by heart; books are to be tabooed. He says, "I will remove the instruments of their greatest misery, namely books; reading is the curse of childhood. When Emile is fifteen years old he must have his mind directed to useful objects. He will go out of doors with his tutor and learn about things; he may have to use tools, work in iron and wood." "Work," he declares, "is indispensable for man in society. Along with habits of bodily exercise and manual training there must be imparted a taste for reflection and meditation."

Emile becomes laborious, temperate, patient, firm, He has been allowed to read Robinson Crusoe, and is expected to live and act like him.

courageous.

We need not follow Emile further to learn Rousseau's plan; he is to become a natural man, not a savage, because he has a tutor who keeps him from the degradation of savagery.

This condensed sketch can hardly explain to the reader the enormous influence of Rousseau. But we must bear in mind that at the time he wrote (1760) education was a formal affair, entirely unlike what it is at the present; it was wholly divorced from life. Rousseau brought it back to life; Emile can live because he is educated. His condemnation of the life of his time was felt to be true; men were tired of it; his pictures of nature allured them. This led them to believe that nature should prevail from childhood up. There was romance in this way. They were carried away with it.

It may seem strange, but it is true, that few men in this world have exerted so profound an influence by their thought as Rousseau. The great German philosopher, Kant, presents in his labored sentences the leading doctrines of Rousseau; thru him they penetrated Germany. In art and literature his influence may be seen and will be felt for a century. The picturesque, the natural, the rural, the emotionally religious, the rebellion against the stiff and conventional may be traced to him. "French literature is soaked with Rousseau's teachings from beginning to end."

In the English language are extensive monuments to this man erected by Burns, Keats, Byron, Carlyle, Ruskin, Longfellow, Lowell, and Emerson; all these echo him; "the last is the most loyal disciple that Rousseau ever had."

Rousseau is the father of democracy; the French revolution was in a great sense his work. The formulas of the Declaration of Independence are largely drawn from him.

But it is in education that his influence has been immeasurably great. These three demands of his have