mities of his fleet. In framing a set of night signals, great attention must be given to their position, that they be not obscured by the sails. The nature of the order to be given will frequently determine this. Thus an order for the rear ships to make more sail, will naturally direct us to exhibit the signal at the mizen peek; and so of other pieces of service. Lanterns, exposed in groups, such as triangles, lozenges, &c., are commonly suspended at the corners of large frames of laths, at the distance of a fathom at least from each other. Attempts have been made to show lights of different colors; but the risk of mistake or failure in the composition, at the laboratory, makes this rather hazardous. Colored lanterns are more certain; but, when the glasses are made of a color sufficiently intense, the vivacity of the light (which at no time is very great) is too much diminished. Besides, the very distance changes the color exceedingly and unaccountably. Signals in a fog.-These can be made only by noises, such as the firing of cannon and muskets, the beating of drums and ringing of bells, &c. Fog signals are the most difficult to contrive of any, and are susceptible of the least variety. The commander in chief is principally concerned to keep his fleet together; and, unless something very urgent requires it, he will make no change in his course or rate of sailing. But a shift of wind or other causes may make this necessary. The changes which he will order, it will be prudent to regulate by some fixed rule, which is in general convenient. Thus, when a fleet is in the order of sailing upon a wind, and a fog comes on, the fleet will hold on the same course. If the wind should come a little more on the beam, the fleet will still keep close to the wind. Certain general rules of this kind being agreed on, no signals are necessary for keeping the fleet together; and the ships can separate or run foul of each other only by difference in their rate of sailing, or by inaccurate steerage. To prevent this the commander-inchief fires a gun from time to time, and the ships of the fleet judge of his situation and distance by the sound. The commanders of divisions fire guns, with some distinction from those of the commander-in-chief. This both informs the commander-in-chief of the position of his squadrons, and enables the private ships of each division to keep in the neighbourhood of their own flag ship. On board of every private ship the drum is beaten, or the bell is chimed, every quarter of an hour, according as the ship is on the starboard or larboard tack. By such contrivances it is never difficult to keep a fleet in very good order when sailing on a wind. The wind is almost always moderate, and the ships keep under a very easy sail. It is much more difficult when going large, and separation can be prevented only by the most unwearied attention. The greatest risk is the falling in with strange ships steering another course. But evolutions and other movements are frequently indispensable. The course must be changed by tacking or wearing, and other services must be performed. None, however, are admitted but the most probable, the most simple, and the most necessary. The coin mander-in-chief first informs the fleet, by the preparatory fog signal, that he is about to order an evolution, and that he is to direct it by fog signals. This precaution is indispensable to prevent mistakes. Along with this advertising signal be makes the signal of the movement intended. This not only calls the attention of the fleet, but makes the ships prepare for the precise execution of that movement. The commanders of divisions repeat the advertising signal, which informs their ships of their situation, and the private ships beat their drums or chime their bells. Thus the whole ships of the fleet close a little, and become a little better acquainted with their mutual position. It is now understood that a movement is to be made precisely a quarter of an hour after the advertisement. At the expiration of this time, the effective signal for this movement is made by the commander-inchief, and must be instantly repeated by the commanders of divisions, and then the movement must be made by each ship, according to the sailing and fighting instructions. This must be done with the utmost attention and precision, because it produces a prodigious change in the relative position of the ships: and, even although the good sense of the commander-in-chief will select such movements for accomplishing his purposes as produce the smallest alterations, and the least risk of separation or running foul of each other, it is still extremely difficult to avoid these misfortunes. To prevent this, as much as possible, each ship which has executed the movement, or which has come on a course thwarting that of the fleet, intimates this by a signal properly adapted, often adding the signal of the tack on which it is now standing, and even its particular signal of recognisance. This is particularly incumbent on the flag ships and leading ships of each division. After a reasonable interval, the commander-in-chief will make proper signals for bringing the fleet to a knowledge of their re-union in this new position. This must serve for a general account of the circumstances which must be attended to in framing a code of signals. The arbitrary characters in which the language is written must be left to the sagacity of the gentlemen of the profession. It must be observed that the stratagems of war make secresy very necessary. It may be of immense hazard if the enemy should understand our signals. In time of battle it might frequently frustrate our attempts to destroy them, and at all times would enable them to escape, or to throw us into disorder. Every commander of a squadron, therefore, issues private signals, suited to his particular destination; and therefore it is necessary that our code of signals be susceptible of endless variations. This is exceedingly easy without any increase of their number. The commander needs only intimate that such and such a signal is so and so changed in its meaning during his command. We cannot leave this article without returning to an observation which we made almost in the beginning, viz. that the system of signals, or, to speak more properly, the manner of framing this system, has received much improvement from the gentlemen of the French navy, and particularly from the ingenious thought of M. de la Bourdonnais, of making the signals the immediate expressions of numbers only, which numbers may be afterwards used to indicate any order whatever. We shall present our readers with a scheme or two of the manner in which this may be done for all signals, both day, night, and fog. This alone may be considered as a system of signals, and is equally applicable to every kind of information at a distance. Without detracting in the smallest degree from the praise due to M. de la Bourdonnais, we must observe that this principle of notation is of much older date. Bishop Wilkins, in his Secret and Swift Messenger, expressly recommends it, and gives specimens of the manner of execution; so does Dr. Hooke in some of his proposals to the Royal Society. Gaspar Schottus also mentions it in his Technica Curiosa; and Kircher, among others of his Curious Projects. M. de la Bourdonnais's method is as follows: He chooses pendants for his effective signals, because they are the most easily displayed in the proper order. Several pendants, making part of one signal, may be hoisted by one halyard, being stopped on it at the distance of four or six feet from each other. If it be found proper to throw out another signal, at the same time and place, they are separated by a red pendant without a point. His colors are chosen with judgment, being very distinctly recognised, and not liable to be confounded with the addressing signals appropriated to the different ships of the fleet. They are, For No. 1. Red. 2. White. 3. Blue. 4. Yellow. 5. Red, with white tail. 0. Yellow, with blue tail. Three sets of such pendants will express every number under 1000, by hoisting one above the other, and reckoning the uppermost hundreds, the next below it tens, and the lowest units. Thus the number 643 will be expressed by a pendant red with blue tail, a yellow pendant below it, and a blue one below the last. This method has great advantages. The signals may be hoisted in any place where best seen, and therefore the signification is not affected by the derangement of the flag ship's masts and rigging. And, by appropriating the smaller numbers to the battle signals, they are more simple, requiring fewer pendants. As this method requires a particular set of colors, it has its inconveniences. An admiral is often obliged to shift his flag, even in time of action. He cannot easily take the colors along with him. It is therefore better to make use of such colors as every private ship is provided with. One set of eleven will do, with the addition of three, at most of four pendants, of singular make, to mark 100, 200, 300, 400. Two of these flags, one above the other, will express any number under 100, by using the eleventh as a substitute for any flag that should be repeated. Thus the eleventh flag, along with the flag for 8 or for 6, will express the number 88 or 66, &c. Thus we are able to express every number below 500, and this is sufficient for a very large code of signals. And, in order to diminish as much as possible the number of these compound signals, it will be proper that a number of single flag signals be preserved, and even varied by circumstances of position, for orders which are of very frequent occurrence, and which can hardly occur in situations where any obstructions are occasioned by loss of masts, &c. And farther, to avoid all chance of mistake, a particular signal can be added, intimating that the signals now exhibited are numerary signals; or, which is still better, all signals may be considered as numerary signals; and those which we have just now called single flag signals may be set down opposite to, or as expressing the largest numbers of the code. This method requires the signal of advertisement, the annulling signal, the signal of address to the particular ship or division, the signal of acknowledgment, the signal of indistinctness, of distress, of danger, and one or two more, which, in every method, must be employed. Another method of expressing numbers with fewer colors is as follows:-Let the flags be A, B, C, D, E, F, and arrange them as follows: 33 34 35 36 E 31 32 The number expressed by any pair of flags is E' A 1 2 3 A 7 8 C F 13 14 18 In this last method the signification of the signal is totally independent of the position of the flags. In whatever parts of the ship the flags D and E are seen, they express the number twenty-three. This would suit battle signals. Another method still may be taken. Flags hoisted any where on the fore-mast may be accounted units, those on the main-mast tens, and those on the mizen-mast hundreds. Thus numeral signals may be made by a ship dismasted, or having only poles in their place. Many other ways may be contrived for expressing numbers by colors, and there is great room for exercising the judgment of the contriver. For it must always be remembered, that these signals must be accompanied with a signal by which it is addressed to some particular ship or division of the fleet, and it may be difficult to connect the one with the other, which is perhaps shown in another place, and along with other executive signals. One great advantage of these numeral signals is, that they may be changed in their signification at pleasure. Thus, in the first method, it can be settled that, on Sundays, the colors A, B, C, D, &c., express the cyphers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., but that on Mondays they express the cyphers 0, 1, 2, 3, &c., and on Tuesdays the cyphers 9, 0, 1, 2, &c.; and so on through all the days of the week. This mean of secrecy is mentioned by Dr. Hooke for the coast and alarm signals, where, by the bye, he shows a method for conveying intelligence over land very similar to what is now practised by the French with their telegraph. It is equally easy to express numbers by night signals. Thus M. de la Bourdonnais proposes that one discharge of a great gun shall express 7, and that 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, shall be expressed by lights. Therefore, to express twenty-four, we must fire three guns and show three lights. This is the most perfect of all forms of night and fog signals. For both the manner of firing guns and of exhibiting lights may be varied to a sufficient extent with a very few guns or lights, and with great distinctness. Thus, for guns, let F mark the firing of a single gun at moderate intervals, and ff a double gun, that is, two discharged at the interval of a second. We may express numbers thus: It might be done with fewer guns if the ff were admitted at the first firing. But it seems better to begin always with the single gun, and thus the double gun beginning a signal, distinguishes the tens, &c. In like manner, a small number of lights will admit of a great variety of very distinct positions, which may serve for all signals to ships not very remote from the commander-inchief. For orders to be understood at a very great distance, it will be proper to appropriate the numbers which are indicated by signals made with rockets. These can be varied in number and kind to a sufficient extent, so as to be very easily distinguished and understood. It is sufficient to have shown how the whole, or nearly the whole, notation of signals may be limited to the expression of numbers. We have taken little notice of the signals made by private ships to the commander-in-chief. This is a very easy business, because there is little risk of confounding them with other signals. Nor have we spoken of signals from the flag-ships, whose ultimate interpretation is number, as when ships are directed to change their course so many points. Those also are easily contrived in any of the methods already described: also when a private ship wishes to inform the commander-in-chief that soundings are found at so many fathoms. In like manner, by numbering the points of the compass the admiral can direct to chase to any one of them, or may be informed of strange ships being seen in any quarter, and what is their number. The following are some of the principal significations now in use: 1. To denote being on the starboard tack. 2. To denote being on the larboard tack. 3. To anchor. 4. To denote being anchored, half an hour after. 5. To moor, or, if before moored, to unmoor. 6. To weigh. 7. To tack. 8. To haul to the wind on the starboard tack. 9. To haul to the wind on the larboard tack. 10. To wear, the sternmost and leewardmost ships first in succession, and continue in the same situation, whether of sailing, or lying-to as before. 11. To alter course to starboard. 16. If in distress and in want of immediate assistance. 17. On striking and sticking fast on a shoal. In the Instructions, it is observed, that the signal guns will be all fired to windward, or on the same side during the continuance of a fog. The admiral, in the execution of his intentions to tack, wear, &c., will not begin to change his situation until ten minutes after the respective signals shall have been made, except upon any extraordinary emergency: meaning thereby to allow a sufficient time for the ships near him to be prepared for the same movement, In case of a sudden shift of wind, or wind springing up after a calm, and not being then favorable for continuing the course before steered, or that the admiral thinks proper to steer a different course; on such occasions he will make the signals for lying-to or the signals for sailing by the wind on either tack that will best correspond with his further intentions. And, if the wind by such alteration becomes favorable for sailing large on the course he intends to steer, he will soon after signify, by the proper signal, the number of points he means to steer from the wind on either tack accordingly. During a fog, the admiral will continue the same course on which he was steering before the fog commenced, whilst the wind continues favorable for enabling him to do so: but if it comes a-head when before sailing large, or before the wind, he will keep the wind with a full sail, not to go more than three knots an hour. If the wind decreases, he will make sail in proportion, for continuing his former rate of sailing, except by setting studding-sails. If the fleet is to bring to under the top-sail, the main top-sail will be to the mast. If under courses, it will be with the main-sail, and the fore-yard braced up. When in the channel, or on a coast, and the signal is made for anchoring, the ships are to anchor immediately. And it is to be remembered that the firing of muskets in volleys, is to denote the being anchored; it should, therefore, be continued some time in each ship, until there is reason to think the whole or greater part of the fleet have anchored. The repeating frigates are not to repeat signals during a fog. SIGNALS, COMPASS (Fr. compas de signaux,), are made with certain flags and pendants, and occasionally used as auxiliaries to the Numerical day signals to be hereafter noticed. When any general signal is accompanied with either of the compass signals, expressive of a particular point, the direction in which the ships are to proceed, to carry the purpose of such signal into execution, is meant to be thereby denoted; as when the signal is made to chase, to alter course, &c. On strange ships being discovered (and so of any other occasion when the bearing is necessary to be made known), the quarter is to be denoted by the proper compass signal; and, when answered by the admiral, the compass signal is to be hauled down once for each strange ship seen; or the number may be indicated by a numeral signal. John M'Arthur, esq. LL. D., formerly secretary to admiral lord Hood, made various improvements in day and night signals, as well as telegraphic communications. That is, early in the year 1790, he laid before the earl of Chatham, then first lord of the admiralty, a code of day signals, combining a tabular and numerary plan, on very simple principles, and susceptible of great variety and extent of ideas. He observes, in his introduction, that having been frequently stationed during the American war to observe signals in fleets, and with a view of obviating the difficulties that frequently arose from showing flags at a particular part of a ship, as well as for facilitating the signification of all signals, it had been the pursuit of his leisure moments since the year 1782; when he first digested a compendium on a plan analogous, though not mature, and presented it to admiral Digby, then commander-in-chief of his majesty's ships and vessels in North America. The precise execution,' he observes, of all naval evolutions, is attainable by the good order and discipline of the respective ships, and a harmonious and speedy compliance with the signals. It is this which gives force and agility to the movements of a fleet, uniting or separating the divisions, or the bodies composing it, according to the exigencies of the moment; and the fewer evolutions that are put in execution in presence of an enemy the better, unless with a view of obtaining an advantageous position, to arrange the fleet in line of battle. In the formation or change of positions, in all evolutions with large bodies, there must at times occur, in the best disciplined fleets, a temporary disunion, separation, or irregularity of some of the ships, in getting into that compact order necessary. The order of sailing, in as compact an order as the weather will permit, is essential for the due observance of signals, and for forming with celerity and precision the line of battle. In fleets from twelve to twenty sail, the order of sailing is generally in three squadrons or divisions, and, in fleets consisting of twenty-four to thirtysix sail of the line, the order of sailing is usually in six divisions; for it is a known truth in naval, as well as in military tactics, that the more compact or collected the order of sailing in divisions, or the order of march of armies in columns, are adhered to in approaching an enemy, the more power and agility they will have in the arrangement for action. As, therefore, the regularity and prompt execution of all naval evolutions depend on the nice observation and speedy understanding of ideas attached to signals, it was Mr. M'Arthur's aim to simplify them, though combining different plans, and to divest them of every ambiguity and misunderstanding. For that purpose, he not only devised the plan of signals alluded to, by partly uniting to the methodical ideas of Locke on his Common-place Book, a numerical moveable index of the flags; but also had arranged and classed all signals under eight general and relative heads, viz. 1. Anchoring. 2. Calling officers and boats. 3. Chasing. 4. Convoys and prizes. 5. Fighting evolutions. 6. Sailing evolutions. 7. Private ships' signals to the admiral. 8. Miscellaneous. The compartments or leaves of the book appropriated to these heads respectively were subdivided alphabetically into the emphatical words, or purport of the signals, connected with the general heads; thus serving as an index, incorporated with the table of flags and significations, for the admiral's greater promptitude and facility in making the necessary signals, as well as for private ships immediately referring to the significations indicated. The signals are comprised into two tables opening from the centre of the book. The tabular flags used are only twelve in number, which, with the aid of an auxiliary or substitute flag, to save the expense of having duplicate flags, express 312 literal significations (independent of a vast variety of signals in a numeral sense to be hereafter noticed), being more than is requited for any code of navy signals. The plan being simple and homogeneous, no pendants nor triangular flags are requisite, either for denoting the points of the compass, duty of launches and boats, or for distinguishing signals, denoting particular squadrons, divisions, &c, of the fleet. The whole, as well as private ships' signals, are compressed into one code, &c., indicated by thirteen flags only, instead of thirty flags, besides a variety of pendants and triangular flags, &c., as were formerly, and are still used in the navy. There is also a consideration of some impor tance recommended in the adoption of this plan, namely, that the captain of every private ship in the fleet, being at all times furnished with the thirteen established signal flags, may on any emergency be immediately detached on a particular service, and thereby as a commanding officer can communicate his ideas, in the language of signals, with the same facility he was accustomed to obey them, while in a subordinate situation.* Each table has twelve leaves annexed, corresponding to the number of tabular flags, and each page or leaf is subdivided into twelve different compartments, on a line with the flags denominated inferior, for the more speedy finding the signification of any signal. Flags of any color or description may be used, but the twelve tabular flags selected for this code are not only such as are capable of expressing a second arrangement of distinct signals when inverted or reversed, but have also two colors contrasted in each flag, as are best seen at a distance, and according to the ascertained observations on the change or vicissitudes of the atmosphere, namely, red and white, blue and white, yellow and white. In the proper order of hoisting the signals, the red, blue, or yellow color of the flag, is always uppermost, or next the mast; in the inverted or reversed order, the white part of the flag, is uppermost, or next the mast. In the first table the flags are shown proper, and in the second they are exhibited inverted or reversed. Hence twelve tabular flags, with a substitute flag, indicate, as already noticed, 312 literal significations; and, by way of illustration, the first table is exhibited in SIGNALS, plate I., comprising 156 numbers, referring to signals composed in sentences or distinct significations. The same flags, inverted and reversed, form a second table (which, being easily understood, it is not necessary to explain by a plate), making with the former 312 significations, besides the numerary and alphabetic plans of which the code is susceptible, indicating upwards of 20,000 additional ideas, all of which are illustrated by examples given in the introduction to these signals. Explanation of plate I., exhibiting the twelve tabular flags in the proper order, with the substitute flag. The twelve flags are exhibited horizontally in the upper column, and these identical flags are again shown vertically in the lateral or left side column, and the substitute is shown separately at the bottom. The numbers from one to twelve, placed immediately under the upper column of flags, not only denote signals, appropriated to single flags, but are indices to refer to the compartments of significations allotted to each of the superior flags, whether hoisted singly or with an inferior flag. *It was usual to furnish captains of private ships with certain flags only for making signals to the admiral, but they were not supplied with the general signal-flags of the commander-in-chief; consequently no junior officer could be detached on any service without much detriment and inconvenience. The term inverted is to be understood when a flag is shown upside down; namely, half red and half white horizontally divided, will be inverted when the white is shown uppermost.-Reversed is applied when a flag is turned the contrary way to the mast, or where it is hoisted, namely, a red and white, divided vertically, is reversed when the white part is next to the mast. Red color is indicated in the plate of flags by vertical strokes or lines, blue by horizontal strokes, and yellow by small dots. The superior flags, with the index numbers attached, have the intervening leaves cut transversely, in order to exhibit at one view the compartment or leaf, on which the signification corresponding to the signal made is to be found, where, casting the eye on the lateral or side column flag, the signification is instantly found. Each table has twelve leaves annexed; that is, one leaf of paper for each flag, and each page or leaf is divided horizontally by lines of separation for the written signification of signals into thirteen compartments. The superior flags with index numbers being cut transversely, in the form of a merchant's alphabet to a ledger; and the flags in the lateral columns being painted in their proper colors, on the twelfth leaf back from the opening of the table are, by this contrivance, always in view with the superior flag, both in front and whatever part of the book may be turned to; therefore when any signal is made, suppose with two flags, the observer has only to place his thumb on the upper flag; and turning over to its compartment, and looking on the left for the inferior, he will instantly find the same number as is shown in the angle of meeting in the table, or opening of the book, as well as the signification of the signals; while, to prevent mistakes, he has at the same time the superior and inferior flags of the signal constantly in view. Thus, for example, if flag B were hoisted superior, and flag M inferior; or, in other words, if No. 2, blue and white flag in the upper column, was placed over No. 1, red and white in the lateral column, the number 25 will be found in the corresponding angle or square of the table; and, by placing the thumb on the superior flag B, you turn over the cut leaves immediately to the page where the literal signification of the signal to the corresponding number twenty-five is expressed, in a line to the inferior flag M. If the same superior flag B were hoisted with the substitute flag, or which, in other words, implies in this tabular form a duplicate of the superior, the number 26 will be found in the angle of meeting, and the signification is written at length on the page back, on a line facing the duplicate or inferior flag on the side column; hence the substitute is here used merely to stand in the place of a duplicate flag, and giving a value to the tabular numbers as expressed in the angles of meeting or squares of the table. Thus the signals expressing the tabular numbers 13, 26, 39, 52, 65, 78, 91, 104, 117, 130, 143, and 156, have the superior and lateral flags represented as of the same denomination, the substitute in these instances is to be always hoisted inferior, as standing in place of a duplicate of the superior flag; but in the numerary application of the plan to be hereafter noticed, the substitute will express a repetition of the superior flag in corresponding units. When the substitute flag is hoisted alone, in the tabular plan, it signifies annulling the preceding signal; and, by being hoisted superior to any of the other twelve flags, it may be appropriated to particular signals, independent of the tabular or numeral ones. The twelve flags, by being painted in duplicates |