sympathetic tie, consisting in the unison of religious faith and profession, shall be broken. A house divided against itself," says our Saviour, "cannot stand." Gloomy, indeed, are the forebodings warranted at every attempted invasion, by the strong hand of Government, of any of the rights of the National church: gloomier still, when the assault is made against the very outworks of morality and order. I have confined myself chiefly to showing the nature of those rights in the case of the universities, and

have scarcely touched upon the manifold and pernicious effects of their infraction as contemplated by the question, trusting that that higher and more difficult task would be volunteered by much abler pens than mine. At all events, an opportunity may probably be afforded me of employing this battery with effect at the close of the engagement. Meanwhile, may truth, and not victory, be the aim of every one, of whatever party, who enters these lists as a British Controversialist. F. J. L.

BEFORE entering upon the number and mechanism of the articulate sounds, it will be necessary to enumerate and describe the organs employed in articulation. These are the lungs, situated in the chest; the trachea, extending from the lungs to the root of the tongue; the larynx; the glottis; the epiglottis; the pharynx; the uvula; the palate; the nares; the tongue; the teeth; and the lips. These organs are divided into two sets, the lower and the higher. The first, or lower set, which consists of the lungs, trachea, glottis, and epiglottis, or all those extending from the lungs to the pharynx, produces those variations of the voice which do not depend on articulation; such as time, loudness, pitch, and tone. The second, or higher, which consists of the pharynx, uvula, palate, nares, tongue, teeth, and lips, produces the variations denominated articulations. The lungs communicate freely with the atmosphere. The means employed are the nasal and oral passages, the pharynx, larynx, and trachea. The lungs constitute a natural reservoir, in which is stored the breath, the material of speech; they are filled by inspiration from the atmosphere, and emptied by expiration and vocal enunciation. They also act as a pair of natural bellows to expel the breath through the vocal channels. On leaving the lungs the breath passes through the trachea, or windpipe, which terminates in the larynx, a gristly box,

having moveable sides, and two sets of muscles for opening and closing it, or altering its shape. The one set stretches the vocal ligaments, the other relaxes them, and thus by an antagonistic action they govern the pitch of the voice. The larynx is covered at top by the glottis, but open at both ends. The glottal covering resembles that of a drum, but is split into two parts by a tongue-shaped aperture, which is shut, when necessary, by the epiglottis, situated immediately above it. The glottis is put into a proper degree of tension and elongation by its governing muscles, and the expired breath causes its sides, which are called the vocal ligaments, to vibrate sound. human voice thus combines in itself both the nature of a stringed and also that of a wind musical instrument. To vibrate, they require tension; and tension produces both a narrowing and a lengthening of the channel through which the breath passes, as through the pipes of an organ. When these conditions are absent, the breath passes freely without obstruction, and no sound is heard. When partially present, a whisper is produced; and when these conditions are fully satisfied, the result is a vocal sound. The glottis, therefore, is the seat of sound, or vocal utterance.

The

The next apparatus is the pharynx, situated at the back part of the mouth, at the upper end of the gullet, and lying between the glottis and the nares. It performs

nearly the same functions in enunciating the articulate sounds, that the lungs do in the production of the vowels. When the palate covers the nares, the upper pharyngeal openings, the expired breath passes into the mouth, and collects there, if orally obstructed. When the oral obstruction is complete, and the breath pressed with considerable force, the pharynx should dilate. So that if any of the obstructive articulations be expressed, as for instance, P, B; T, D; K, G; and the articulating organs separated for that purpose, the mere contraction of the pharyngeal muscles should effect a percussive audibility of those sounds. Situated above the pharynx, and depending from it, lies the soft palate, hanging like a curtain from the back of the mouth, and terminating in a soft, spongy substance, termed the uvula. This serves the purpose of a valvular covering to the nares, or upper pharyngeal aperture, which, when shut, prevents the escape of breath through the nostrils. The expelled breath must then pass through the oral channel, the mouth. A contractile action of the pharynx gives to the articulations an explosive effect.

The remaining portions of the articulative organs are the nares, or nostrils, the tongue, the teeth, and the lips; which, being sufficiently well known, require no description.

When the breath is very slightly modified by the glottis, the sound produced is a mere breathing, represented by H; when more completely modified by the glottis, the sound produced is a vocal one; when still further modified in its course by the oral and nasal organs, the sound produced is an articulation. The glottis having been put into a certain position, and the breath expelled from the lungs through it in that position, the sound produced will continue the same as long as the breath issues from the lungs. Position, then, and expelled breath, are essential to the production of a vowel sound, and are therefore characteristic of it; whereas in the production of the articulate sounds there is added an action of the modifying organs, which action is also characteristic of the articulations. Those sounds which have a free oral passage are called vowels; those which are orally or nasally modified, articulations.

These two classes of sounds have been termed vowels and consonants; which terms

have been somewhat confusedly conceived and applied. The vowels have been represented as the only sounds which can be audibly uttered by themselves; and the consonants as having no sound without being joined to a vowel. But there is here a mere semblance of truth. The assertion is based upon falsehood. All the sounds can be uttered alone; but all have not the same quantity and quality of sound. There is a great difference between those which receive their chief modification in the glottis, and those which receive it in the oral and nasal passages; between those produced by a position, and those produced by an action of the organs. These terms, therefore, do not fully express the distinction intended.

The vowels, too, have been subdivided into open and shut, long and short, slender and broad. But here also some confusion has been manifested. The terms open and shut, long and short, have not been applied to different quantities of the same vowel sound, but often to sounds of a different organic formation. And the terms broad and slender have not been respectively applied to those which have a difference in the width of the oral passage. Nor do they express the difference between the extreme and the intermediate sounds.

Bishop Wilkins thinks the number of radical vowel sounds is eight, though there may be intermediate ones which are practically indistinct. Sir John Stoddart coincides with him in this opinion, in so far as their application extends to the Greek, Latin, and the different branches of the Teutonic, Scandinavian, and Celtic languages, of which he had any knowledge. Each of these radical vowels has a duplicate variety, called short, making in all sixteen. But three of these are not found in the English. Professor Latham makes the vowels twelve, dividing them into broad and slender; the slender being subdivided into dependent and independent. Professor Bell asserts the number to be thirteen, which coincides with the statement of the Bishop. Adopting this, then, as the real number of English vowels, I shall proceed to classify them and describe their mechanism.

The most appropriate classification seems to be into that of lingual and labial, as characteristic of their production; the lingual being produced nearest to the seat of

sound, and the labial farthest from it. Commencing with those sounds produced by the narrowest lingual aperture, I shall proceed to those which have the most open, and then to those which have the closest labial aperture, numerically noting the various sounds as I proceed.

By nearly closing the oral aperture, which is done by raising the tongue towards the palate, pressing the sides of the back part of it against the palate, and forming a very narrow passage between it and the middle of the tongue, as for ē, then gradually depressing the tongue, until the widest position is attained, as for ā in arm, āh, &c., the seven lingual vowels are evolved. Again, by gradually closing the oral aperture, not by the agency of the tongue, but by the approximation of the lips, as for ōō in wōō, hōōd, &c., the six labial vowels are produced. Between ē, the closest, and a(h), the most open sound, there is one exactly intermediate, heard in the words nět, tell, sell, &c.; and between a(h) and ōō, the closest labial, there is also one intermediate, heard in the words tall, gōt, caught, &c. These five sounds constitute what may be called the common

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the twelfth to the thirteenth. This tends very much to produce that beauty or melody of tone which distinguishes the English so much from the Scotch pronunciation. There is not a union of the two vowels, as in a common diphthong, but a flowing of the one into the other, forming a very graceful cadence. The closest lingual, ē, and the most open, ä(h), unite in forming the diphthong heard in file, mīle, ire, &c.; the most open lingual ā(h), and the closest labial ōō, unite in forming the diphthong heard in cow, how, now, &c.; and the middle labial, heard in the words on, all, unites with the first lin

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gual, heard in the words sēē, ēēl, bēē, &c., in producing the diphthong heard in toil, coil, oil. Thus in thirteen simple and three compound ones are comprised all the vowel sounds which are found in the English language.

The term articulations is applied to those actions of the vocal organs which either partially hinder, or completely obstruct, the breath or voice. When the hindrance or obstruction of the breath or voice is removed, by the separation of the approximated or tangent organs, an explosion of the breath or voice is produced. An audible sound, produced either in the mouth or by it, distinguishes the articulations from the other vocal elements. When the breath is wholly shut in, as in attempting to pronounce P,T, K, there is no sound heard until the organs are separated, and then only a rustling explosion. The separation of the organs is essential to the production of the articulation. The compressed breath only, which is in the mouth, should be permitted to escape. The breath which is in the lungs should be retained there, by completely closing the glottis. Unless this be done, the sudden, explosive, sharp excussion of breath will not be heard. The contraction of the pharyngeal muscles must alone expel the breath, which can easily be accomplished without the aid of those of the chest. In articulating any of the six obstructives, -represented by the letters p, b; t, d; k, g

the breath is shut in by the lips, for p and b; by the fore part of the tongue and the front of the palate for t and d; and by the back part of the tongue and palate for k and g;

and it collects in the mouth, and dilates the pharynx-the glottis being shut, by the contraction of its muscles, and the depression of the epiglottis, which intercepts the issue of breath from the lungs. If, when so dilated, an oral aperture is formed by the separation of the lips, or of the tongue and palate, the breath will escape, and the sudden contraction of the pharynx will expel it forcibly and explosively. This constitutes the first mode of action by which the articulations are produced, namely,-complete contact of the organs, pressure of breath, and sudden oral separation, producing explosive audibility.

P, t, and k, are shut breath articulations. The organs placed in the same position as for these, with voice instead of breath, produce respectively b, d, g, which are, therefore, shut voice articulations. This voice is heard only in the pharynx. Its continuance depends upon the gradual dilation of that organ. When that is complete, the voice ceases. The organs must be separated for these, just as for the shut breath articulations, or the articulative action will not be complete, and the explosion heard.

These three formations, namely, the labial for p, b; the anterior lingual for t, d; and the posterior lingual for k, g, produce six articulate sounds-in producing which the breath is wholly obstructed by contact of the organs. Other three elemental sounds are produced by these three actions, simply by directing the voice to the nares. Thus, the labial formation produces m, the anterior lingual produces n, and the posterior lingual produces ng. The audibility of these is not much increased by the separation of the organs; yet they are not complete without separation. In terminating the action, the nares should not be closed before the other organs are separated, or an explosive effect will be added to them, similar to that heard sometimes in the word "ringer" when pronounced so as to rhyme with linger-" ringger." These are the only English nasal articulations, and they are all voice ones.

In the first mode of action, which consists in complete contact, there are three actions which produce nine of the articulate sounds, namely, three breath, p, t, k; three voice, b, d, g; and three nasal, m, n, ng: all of which are obstructives.

The second mode of action consists in

an approximation of the organs, which produce continuous sounds. If the organs be approximated, as for t, with voice as the material, the sound produced will be that of smooth r. If the approximation be assumed for P, the position for wh and w will be formed; and these articulations will be produced by a quick, compressive action. If this action be absent, w will become oo, and wh a mere rustling breath. If the tip of the tongue be pointed towards the palate, immediately behind the upper gum, forming a very narrow central passage, the hissing sound represented by s, will be produced. The teeth require to be very close for this sound. This position, with voice instead of breath, produces z. The point of the tongue, drawn back from its position for s, will give that for sh; and this latter, with voice, produces zh-the sound heard in the word azure. The middle of the tongue approximated to the palate gives the position for y-the sound heard in the words hew, you, new, few, &c. This position is nearly the same as that for e. This mode of action gives us eight elements, which are produced by five actions. Three of the actions produce both breath and voice varieties, and the other two, voice only.

Another element, which is generally considered a compound, represented by ch, but is really a simple, may be added to these. Its position differs very little from that for s, being produced by a little more depression of the root of the tongue, and a nearer approximation of the tip of the tongue to the palate.

The third mode of action is by partial contact of the organs. The breath in this action finds no central egress. It issues by lateral apertures. The posterior part of the tongue and palate cannot be used in this action. Five elements are produced by it, namely, those represented by 1, th (breath variety, heard in the word thick), th (voice variety, heard in thine), f, and v. The fore part of the tongue, pressing upon the palate with lateral apertures, gives the position for the articulation represented by 1. This is a voice articulation. It is very pure, but requires the separating action, which classes it with the articulations. The tip of the tongue pressed upon the inner surface of the upper teeth, with lateral apertures, and breath as the material, produces the sound heard in th(in). This position, with voice, produces

that heard in th(ine). The middle of the lower lip pressed upon the edge of the upper front teeth, with lateral apertures, produces f with breath, and v with voice.

This completes the number of the articulations. Without the breath variety of y, and the rough variety of r, there are twenty-two elementary articulations, and twenty-three, if ch be included, produced by three modes of action, namely, complete contact, approximation, and partial contact of the organs. Three actions are employed in the first mode, producing nine elementary sounds three breath, three voice, and three nasal obstructive elements. The second mode produces eight elements, three breath, and five voice. The third mode has three actions, producing five articulations. There are three compound sounds, represented by j, x, and ch. But ch is really a simple sound, and ought to be classed with the first, as it is a breath obstructive, produced by contact, and finished by explosion.

The whole of the articulations have been divided into breath, voice, nasal. The breath ones have sometimes been called sharp, and the voice ones flat. The former terms are more descriptive than the latter, as they are all produced either by whispered breath, or sonorous breath or voice. They have also been divided into mutes and liquids. The mutes again have been subdivided into sharps and flats, or breath and voice, and also into lene and aspirate. The terms lene and aspirate are equivalent to explosive and continuous. The mutes have thus a double series of relations. They may be formed into five series, of which p, t, k, s, and ch, may be taken as types. Pf, B v, Th t, Th d, G k, Ch j, Sh s, and Zh z, are therefore pairs of cognate or allied sounds. The first of each pair having a lower, and the second a higher, but similar, organic formation. To the series p, belong b, f, v; to the series t belong d, th sharp or breath, and th flat or voice; to the series k, belongs g; to ch, belongs j; and to the series s, belong z, sh, zh.

There are eight breath or sharp, namely, p, t, k, s, f, th, ch, and of these the four first are explosive or lene, and the other four are continuous or aspirate. There are eight voice or flat, namely, b, d, g, z, v, th, zh, and j, and of these four are explosive or lene, and four are continuous or aspirate.

Professor Latham has expressed a doubt in regard to what is the nature of that rela tion which ranks s and z with the lenes, as he was under the impression that they are continuous. But I think a very little more attention to their mechanism would have removed the doubt. There is a withdrawing of the tongue from a very gentle contact, which gives to them an explosive finish.

Of the liquids, M, N, L, R, M is said to be allied to series P; N to series T; L to series K; and R to series S. That is, they enter into fluent combination with them. Or the position for the one can easily be changed for that of the other, and thus the enunciation of both is rapidly produced. This is evident in the combinations inp and imp, and impt and int; ilm and ilk, earls and heirs.

Some of the articulations cannot be pronounced in conjunction in the same syllable. The voice ones will not combine with preceding breath ones, or, in other words, the flat articulations cannot combine with preceeding sharp ones. Thus pb, pd, pv, pg. pz, pzh, pth, pj, cannot be pronounced, and so of all the others of the series. Some again are liable to be changed for others more fluent. Y and the thirteenth vowel ōō enter into fluent combination, but if t, k, or s precede it, the y and oo are liable to be changed. Thus y with ōō is equal to yoo or you; but with s before the y, yoo becomes shoo; s and ure are liable to become shoore; ure with t preceding becomes choore; and d and ew are liable to become dzhoo or jew. This is very well exemplified in Mr. Walker's notation in his dictionary. New sounds are thus generated or evolved.

Several changes take place both of the vowels and articulations; such as in the present tense of verbs, the singular and plural of nouns, and the comparative degree of adjectives; as give of the present is changed to gave in the past; bind to bound; leaf to leaves; leave to left; man to men; penny to pence; older to elder, &c.

Forty-one elementary sounds are found in the English language, while there are only twenty-six alphabetic characters. And even of the twenty-six C and Q are superfluous, and X and I are compound. Of the remaining characters, five represent vowel sounds, so there are only seventeen symbols to represent twenty-three articulations. Hence, the