convenient access to them without any encroachment on the choir or sacrarium. In the tenth century church of Vignory, three small chapels are projected from the apse-aile (see Apse, Fig. 8). The cathedral of Cahors (eleventh century) has three chapels opening direct from its aileless apse (see Apse, Fig. 9); and the apse of the cathedral of Angoulême (early twelfth century) has four small chapels similarly situated. In the twelfth and two following centuries apse-chapels became very general in French churches, appearing in nearly all those which were planned with ailed apses, as in the cathedrals of Noyon, Soissons, Reims, Amiens, Rouen, Beauvais, Chartres, Le Mans, Troyes, Tours, Séez, Bayeux, Clermont, Limoges, and Narbonne; and in the churches of Saint-Étienne, Caen; Saint-Martin, Étampes; Saint-Ouen, Rouen; and numerous other examples. The cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, was, in the thirteenth century, a notable exception to the rule; for, although its apse was surrounded then, as at present, with double ailes, it had no chapels projected from them; the existing chapels having been constructed, between the buttresses, in the fourteenth century (see Apse, Fig. 17). The twelfth century church of Notre-Dame at Mantes, and the collegiate church of Poissey have no apse-chapels. In the Romanesque churches of Normandy, erected before the close of the twelfth century, both apse-ailes and apse-chapels were, as a rule, omitted, as in the churches of Saint-Nicholas, and Abbaye-aux-Dames, Caen. The aileless apses of the churches of the Cordeliers, Toulouse (thirteenth century), and Saint-Cecily, Alby (fourteenth century), have chapels opening from them. In Italian churches, apse-chapels are not commonly met with; they are, however, introduced in connexion with the three great apses of the cathedral of Florence (see Apse, Fig. 5). In the German Romanesque churches, apse-chapels do not exist; and in the thirteenth century pointed buildings where they are introduced, as Cologne cathedral, the abbey church, Altenberg, and Fribourg cathedral, the evidence of French influence is obvious. In England, apse-chapels exist at Norwich cathedral (end of eleventh century), Canterbury cathedral crypt (early twelfth century), and Westminster abbey (thirteenth century). For plans of and further particulars relating to apse-chapels we must refer the student to our articles Apse and Chapel. APSIDAL. In architectural nomenclature, the term used in connexion with certain structures to denote that they are either in the form of an apse, or are terminated with an apse. The term does not, however, convey any idea as regards the form or disposition of the apse. APSIDAL CHANCEL. A chancel of a church which is terminated, eastward, with an apse, as that of the late Norman church of Dalmeny, Linlithgowshire. In this example the apse is narrower than the main body of the chancel, and is divided therefrom by a richly moulded arch.* An interesting Early English apsidal chancel exists at Tidmarsh church, Berkshire; it is three-sided, with two short parallel sides, or, on plan, it presents five sides of an octagon. † APSIDAL CHAPEL. A chapel constructed either in the form of an apse, or with an apse attached to it. Examples of apsidal chapels are numerous, both in this country and abroad. In England, the more important are Trinity chapel, Canterbury cathedral; the Lady-chapels of Lichfield and Wells cathedrals; and the chapel of Henry the Seventh, Westminster abbey. The radiating chapels of the apse of Westminster abbey; the radiating apse-chapels and the ancient chapel of St. Osyth (?) in the north transept, Norwich cathedral; the chapel of St. Catherine, opening from the south-west transept, Ely cathedral; the four chapels projected eastward of the north-east and southeast transepts, Lincoln cathedral; and the four chapels of the eastern transepts and those in the towers of SS. Anselm and Andrew, Canterbury cathedral, are all apsidal. Among the best known French examples are the Sainte-Chapelle, Paris; the chapel of the chateau of Vincennes; the Lady-chapel of the abbey church of Saint-Germain des Prés; and the chapel of the archbishop's palace, at Reims. All these examples are similar on plan, which is simply a parallelogram with a polygonal apse at one end. Apsidal chapels, projected from the apses, lateral ailes, and transepts of the French cathedrals and abbey churches are almost countless, and it is only necessary here to mention a few of the more important :-the Lady-chapels of the cathedrals of Amiens, Reims, Le Mans, Séez, Bayeux, Rouen, Coutances, and the church of Saint-Ouen, Rouen; the radiating chapels of all the above buildings, and of the cathedrals of Beauvais, Troyes, Chartres, Noyon, Soissons, Bourges, Tours, Clermont, Limoges, Narbonne, and Alby; the lateral choir-chapels of the cathedrals of Le Mans, Troyes, and Narbonne; and the transept-chapels of the cathedrals of Angoulême, Laon, and Rouen; and the churches of Notre-Dame, Dijon; Sainte-Foy, Conques; Saint-Sernin, Toulouse; and Saint-Paul, Issoire. In German architecture, apsidal chapels are by no means so common as in French; and their introduction, in the more important buildings, is clearly due to the study of French models in the thirteenth century; the apsidal chapels of the cathedral of Cologne are the most noteworthy examples of this. Apsidal chapels also appear in the cathedrals of * An interior perspective of this chancel is given in Descriptive Notices of some of the Ancient Parochial and Collegiate Churches of Scotland, London, 1848; and an exterior view appears in Glossary, pl. iv. + Glossary, pl. v. Fribourg and Ratisbonne; and in the churches of Laach, Gelnhausen, Oberwesel, Zanten, and Altenberg. In Belgian architecture, apsidal chapels are to be found in the cathedrals of Tournay, Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp; the church of St. Jacques, Liège, and numerous other buildings. In Italy, apsidal chapels are still more rare than in Germany; they are found, however, in the basilica of St. Clemente, at Rome (probably twelfth century additions); the cathedral of St. Mark, at Venice; and in the transepts of Milan cathedral. In the generality of Byzantine churches, or those erected in accordance with the ritual of the Greek Church, two eastern apsidal chapels are found (see Apse, p. 236). These, however, are not strictly chapels, as the term is commonly understood, not being separately dedicated to saints and containing their special altars. The apsidal chapels in Russian churches, in some instances, differ from those above alluded to, being constructed for the reception of minor altars, as in the cathedral of Kieff, which has eight eastern apsidal chapels. For plans and further details relating to apsidal chapels, see articles Apse and Chapel. APSIDAL CHOIR. A choir terminating, eastward, in an apse, which is either semicircular in plan, as in the choirs of Norwich cathedral, Notre-Dame at Paris, and the church of St. Mary in the Capitol at Cologne, or polygonal, as in the choirs of Westminster abbey, the cathedrals of Amiens, Beauvais, and Cologne, and the church of St. Elizabeth at Marburg. In early churches, and in those of moderate dimensions, the constructional choir frequently consists of little more than an apse, short parallel sides being added to render it somewhat more commodious. The ritual choir, as in the ancient basilica, being constructed, westward of the arch of triumph, by low enclosing walls surrounding an elevated floor-space, approached from the nave and other portions of the church by steps, as in the church of St. Clemente at Rome. (See Choir.) APSIDAL TRANSEPT. A transept terminating in an apse of its entire width. Transepts which have merely apsidal chapels projected from their sides or ends cannot be included under this term. There are no examples of apsidal transepts in this country, but they are to be found in several Continental cathedrals and churches. Amongst the most noteworthy we may mention the transepts of the cathedrals of Soissons, Noyon, Tournay, and Florence,* and the churches of St. Elias at Thessalonica,t St. Mary in the Capitol, St. Martin, and the Apostles at Cologne, St. Elizabeth at Marburg, and the church of Neuss. For plans and further particulars see articles Apse and Transept. * See plan in article Apse, Fig. 5. ↑ Ibid., Fig. 7. Ibid., Fig. 24. APTERAL. The term applied to a temple or other structure devoid of lateral colonnades; it literally signifies without a pteron.* The term is used in opposition to peripteral, which signifies surrounded by columns. The plan given in article Antae is that of an apteral temple. AQUA-MARINA. A precious stone of a sea-green colour, from which it derives its name. It was frequently used by the ancient artists in gem engraving. (See Beryl.) AQUARIUM OR AQUARICIUM. The term used by the Romans to designate a pond or tank in which live fish were kept. It also appears to have been applied to the reservoirs into which the aqueducts discharged their waters, and from which the public baths were supplied. The term has been used by medieval authors in its former and more common Latin signification. At the present day the term is understood to signify an artificial construction of stone, iron, and glass, so arranged and supplied with fresh or sea-water that fish and aquatic vegetation can live in it, and at the same time be readily seen. Generally the aquarium consists of a succession of tanks, open at top, built with stone and cement at bottom and three sides, in imitation of natural rocks, and fronted with thick plate glass, through which the habits and motions of the fish are viewed. The tanks either contain fresh or salt water, which is kept flowing from a large reservoir through the entire series and back again into it. This circulation is caused by machinery, which also keeps the water in a healthful state by injecting air below its surface, in the tanks. Probably the most perfect aquarium on this principle in England is that at Brighton. In the Trocadero gardens of the Paris Exposition of 1878, a fresh water aquarium was constructed under an open fish-pond, into which water flowed from the neighbouring fountains. AQUARIUS. The Water Bearer. The sign of the zodiac which the sun enters about January 21st. Representations of the signs of the zodiac were frequently introduced in architectural sculpture, stained glass, and decoration, by the artists of the middle ages. (See Zodiac.) Aquarius was usually represented as a man carrying a water vessel; and the rainy nature of the month of January was set forth by his pouring out its contents. He is thus sculptured in the fine series which adorns the plinth of the northern of the three west doorways of Amiens cathedral. The sign was commonly associated with an emblem of the month, as at Amiens. (See Months, Emblems of.) The term APTERAL has been incorrectly applied to buildings without any columns; for instance" Among the Greeks and Romans the simplest form of the rectangular temple was the apteral or äoruλos, without any columns; the next was that in which the two side walls were carried out from the naos to form a porch at one or both extremities of the building."-H. M. Westropp, in Handbook of Archæology. London, 1867. In the arch of the great west doorway of the cathedral of St. Mark, at Venice, is a series of the signs, with accompanying emblems of the months. The sign of Aquarius appears to have consisted of wavy lines only, representing water; but being much defaced it is impos sible to decide whether a figure was also introduced. Two or three zig-zag or wavy lines, placed over each other, form the simplest variety of the sign. The astronomical sign is shown in the accompanying cut, evidently derived from the ancient Egyptian conventional manner of representing water. AQUEDUCT OR AQUÆDUCT. Literally a water-conduit. The term is derived from the genitive case of aqua, water, and ductus, a conduit; hence the old method of spelling it, AQUEDUCT, is the more correct one. Although the term may be applied to any channel or pipe by means of which water is conveyed from one place to another, it has almost exclusively been employed to designate those magnificent structures erected by the ancient Romans for the purpose of supplying their cities with water. The Greeks do not appear to have particularly directed their attention to the construction of aqueducts, probably because they were not compelled to do so by necessity; but at the same time we are not in a position to state that they were ignorant of the mode of constructing them. M. Bosc 2 remarks:-" In spite of the contrary opinions of some authors, the Greeks knew perfectly the construction of aqueducts. Ancient writers and modern travellers have furnished numerous proofs. We give the aqueduct of Samos as the first example, constructed by the architect Hypalinus, in the year 687 before Christ, which Herodotus signalises as one of the most magnificent works of the Greeks. M. Guérin excavated some trenches to find the remains of this subterranean aqueduct, and his researches were crowned with success. He has recorded the result of his labours in his work entitled:-Etude sur l'ile de Samos, 1856, ch. xiv." 8 146 The aqueduct is mentioned by Strabo as among the structures which were neglected by the Greeks, and first brought into use by the Romans. Springs (xpñvaι, κpovvví) were sufficiently abundant in Greece to supply the great cities with water; and they were frequently converted into public fountains by the formation of a head for their waters, and the erection of an ornamental superstructure."-Dr. Smith's Dict. of Greek and Roman Antiq. 2 Dict. rais. d'Arch. 8 In continuation of this subject M. Bosc adds :-" Postérieurement Phéax, en 479 av. J.-C., construisit l'aqueduc d'Agrigente; sous les Pisistrates, Athènes eut aussi son aqueduc, qui portait dans son enceinte les eaux de l'Hymette et celles du Pentélique. D'après Pausania, (X, 37, 5), il en existait un à Cirrha, un second à Crissa en Phocide, un troisième souterrains construit sous l'empereur Hadrien, entre Stymphale et Corinthe. (Id., II, 3, 5). Fielder nous signale celui de Chalcis (Reisen in Greich, t. I, p. 446); Leake (North Greece, t. 4, p. 376), celui de Démétrius de Magnésie; Heuzey (Missions en Macédoine, p. 51), celui de Philippe; il en existait d'autres dans la Troade, à Cyrène, à Gythium et dans d'autres localités." |