Norberg, MATTHIAS, a Swedish Orientalist of note, was born in 1747; flourished at the high school in Lund as professor of the Oriental languages; and died in 1826. He is the author of several valuable contributions to Oriental philology. His most noted work is a treatise On the Religion and Language of the Sabœans (1780).

behah, which latter, from the mode of its occurrence | philosopher and a man of science, the first countries in in Numb. xxxii, 36, would seem to have been in the Europe; and having passed into and explored Egypt, he neighborhood of Heshbon. Ewald (Gesch. ii, 268, note) published, on his return to Denmark, an account of his decides (though without giving his grounds) that No- travels in Egypt and Nubia, which is interesting, corphah is identical with the latter of these. In that case rect, and accurate. It is written in French, and entitled the difference would be a dialectical one, Nophah being Voyage d'Egypte et de Nubie (Copenh. 1752, 1755, 2 vols. the Moabitish or Amoritish form. See NOBAH. fol.). The first volume consists entirely of plates, being a series of maps of the course of the Nile from Cairo to Derr, and a succession of views of the scenery along the banks of the river, forming a kind of panorama of the Nile; besides plans and sections of the pyramids, temples, and other remarkable buildings. The second volume contains Norden's journal, which is written in a biographical notice of the author. Norden was the first plain, unpretending style. The editors have added a traveller who explored Egypt as an artist, and his drawings gave the first tolerably correct idea of the stupendous monuments of that country. His work was translated into English, and published, enlarged by Dr. Peter Templeman, in London (1757), in 2 vols. fol. Langlès published a new and corrected edition of the original French (in 3 vols. 4to) at Paris in 1795-98.

Norbert, ST., a noted German prelate of the Middle Ages, was born at Xanten in 1080. He was of good descent, but his early life was rather wild; however, finally settled down and determining on a Christian life, he joined the secular canons of the collegiate church at Xanten. He was then for some years chaplain of the emperor Henry V. Suddenly he left the court, and began doing strict penance for his former excesses. Ordained deacon and priest on the same day by the Nordheimer, ISAAC, Ph.D., one of the most noted archbishop of Cologne, he set out travelling, to preach Hebraists of modern times, and a philosopher of no mean mortification and repentance. For this he was accused order, was born of Jewish parents, in 1809, at Memelsof fanaticism before the Council of Fritzlar in 1118. As dorf, a village not far from Erlangen, Germany. He he was gaining but few proselytes, he went to join pope received the rudiments of his education at a Jewish Gelasius in Languedoc, by whom he was well received, school of his native place, and having acquired that proand authorized to continue his preaching. He afterwards travelled through Hainault and Brabant, declin- ficiency in Jewish learning which fitted him to become ing the bishopric of Cambray, which was offered to the Gymnasium of Würzburg, to acquire a knowledge a rabbi, young Nordheimer, in 1828, entered himself at him. In 1120 Bartholomew, bishop of Laon, called him of classical literature, theology, and philosophy, in acto that city to reform the canon regulars, whose disci-cordance with the demands made in the present day of pline had become much relaxed. Failing in this task, a Jewish public teacher. After remaining two years in Norbert became disgusted with the world, and retired the gymnasium, he was transferred (1830) to the Uniinto a wilderness. Here he was joined by some disciples, versity of Würzburg, which he left in 1832, and went to and thus was laid the foundation of the Order of the Pre- complete his studies at the high school in Munich, where monstrants (q. v.). Immediately upon the organization he took his degree as doctor of philosophy in the auof the order it made converts; and after an existence tumn of 1834, and afterwards sustained, pro forma, the of only four years Norbert had under his orders nine convents, following strictly his rule. He thus acquired great Assured by two American pupils, who took private public examination required of Jewish theologians. reputation both in the Church and in the State, and lessons of him in 1832, that he could find a pleasant was sent on a mission to the emperor at Spires, by the home in the United States of America, and more rapidly count of Champagne, in 1126. The archbishopric of Magdeburg being at the time vacant, the emperor pro- his home in 1835 for America, and arrived in New York secure positions of trust and influence, Nordheimer left posed Norbert, and he was appointed. He is said to in the summer of the same year. He soon received have long resisted; but at last he accepted the ap- from the university of that city the nominal appointpointment, still retaining, however, the title of abbot of ment as professor of Arabic and other Oriental JanPrémontrée and the government of the abbey until 1128. He took part in the Council of Rheims in 1131, after received the appointment of instructor in the guages, and acting professor of Hebrew. He also soon and had several conferences with St. Bernard, in which Union Theological Seminary, New York City, though he asserted his opinion that the coming of the Anti- he remained steadfast to the faith of his forefathers. christ was near at hand. The latter years of his life His great learning, and especially his mastery of the were employed in the service of the party which during Hebrew tongue, made him a desirable instructor and the schism maintained the claims of Innocent II; and he associate. He was the teacher of many divines now accompanied the emperor to Rome when he went to eminent in this country, and enjoyed the companionship establish that pope in the Vatican. Norbert died on his of Dr. Alexander, Robinson, Stuart, and other noted Bibreturn from that journey, June 6, 1134. He was canon-lical scholars. He died Nov. 3, 1842. On his way to ized by pope Gregory XIII in 1582. We find a ser- this country, on shipboard, Nordheimer had begun the mon of Norbert, besides some less important fragments, construction of a Hebrew grammar on a philosophical in the Bibl. Patr. (ed. Lyon) xxi, 118. Le Paige, in his basis. In 1838 he brought out the first volume of it, and Bibl. Præmonstr., considers him as the author of some in 1841 the second volume (2d ed. with additions and imother works not extant at present. See Hugo, Vie de St.provements, N. Y. 1842, 2 vols. 8vo). In a review of Norbert (Luxemb. 1704); Gallia Christiana, vol. ix, col. 642, 643; Bibl. Præmonstr. p. 304; Bollandists (June), i, 809; St. Bernard, Epist. 253; Hist. litter. de la France, xi, 243; Migne, Nouv. Encycl. Théologique, iii, 111; Hase, Ch. Hist. p. 229 sq.; Neander, Ch. Hist. iv, 208, 244; Milman, Hist. Lat. Christianity, iv, 208; v, 148; Hardwick, Ch. Hist. M. A. p. 237.

Norden, FREDERICK LOUIS, a noted Danish traveller, was born at Glückstadt, in Schleswig-Holstein, in 1708. He was educated for the army, and for a time figured in its service. He excelled in mathematics, and particularly in correct drawing, on which account he was employed by the Danish king in travelling, and in examining the construction of ships. He visited, as a

this work, Prof. Alexander writes: "This new work requires no painful effort of memory to keep its parts in order; the perusal in it of the most thorny part of Hebrew grammar opens a vista superior in clearness, extent, and beauty to that exhibited by any other writer. Nothing but the fear of being thought to deal in sweeping panegyric prevents our speaking in the highest terms" (Princet. Rep. [1858] x, 197 sq.). Horne (in his Bibl. Bib. [1839] p. 197 sq.) does not hesitate to pronounce it "the most elaborate and philosophical Hebrew grammar in the English language." The truth is, Nordheimer had made discoveries in the formative laws of language generally, and thus he was able to master the intricate Hebrew, and to simplify its study. He re

Nordmann, LEON, a Jewish-French scholar of some prominence, was born at Hegenheim, Alsace, about 1835. In consequence of the revolution in 1848, his parents emigrated to Germany and settled in Bavaria, where Leon visited the high school. He continued his studies at the lyceum in Strasburg, where he also cultivated his Talmudical studies under the direction of rabbi Moses Uttenheim. He then visited the rabbinical school of Metz, where he graduated with the honors of a rabbi; subsequently he attended several courses of lectures at Paris. He felt a special attachment for the late Prof. Munk, and became one of his best-beloved pupils. He received several calls as minister, which he declined, because he did not wish to leave the intellectual centre at Paris. At the foundation of the "Alliance Israélite Universelle," he was elected its secretary, an occupation congenial to his taste. Later he resigned that position, and officiated in several schools as a religious teacher. In 1870 he published his book, Textes classiques, which deals with several important Hebrew passages of Scripture. He died at Paris in July, 1872. His untimely death was caused by the privations inciHis family he dent to the late Franco-Prussian war. had sent out of the country during that time of trial. He was kind, genial, and affectionate, ever active in the relief of distress and in giving assistance to the poor, and in sympathy with all movements undertaken in the cause of humanity and progress. See Jewish Times (N. Y. Aug. 9, 1872). (J.HW.)

duced the Hebrew declensions from Stuart's thirteen | 881). He remained, however, a steadfast follower of and Gesenius's nine to four; entered into the working Tauler. At Nuremberg, where he visited, he was reand make-up of the verb, and accounted for the irregular garded as a leader of the Friends of God (q. v.). (J. ones on the ground that the regular verbs could not, H. W.) without violation of all proper laws of speech, reduplicate their consonants sufficiently, especially when guttural, to give the intensive sense required, and that therefore new ones, called irregular, but normally constituted, had to appear. Similar explanations as to the changes in other parts of the verb, and in all parts of the Hebrew speech, lifted the obscurity from the language of the ancient writings, and made its study an intellectual pleasure and proat. Besides this great work, he published A Grammatical Analysis of Select Portions of Scripture, or a Chrestomathy (1838):-The Philosophy of Ecclesiastes, being an Introduction to the Book of Ecclesiastes, in the Biblical Repository (July, 1838). Of this work Prof. Rood, who was for ten years president of the theological seminary at Gilmanton, N. H., writes: "I think Nordheimer's masterly power, that in which he excelled other writers such as the Kimchis, Ewald, Gesenius, and Prof. Stuart-consisted in the magnificent ease and absolute perfection of his analyses. I think that this talent was so much a part of his nature that he may have been quite unconscious of it. When his mind turned itself in a direction that called for the exercise of this faculty, it seemed like an eagle soaring over the heights, and yet peering into all below. He could separate elements, and throw aside all but the indispensable." He also contributed several valuable articles to the Biblical Repository. Dr. Nordheimer also left the following works in MS.: A Chaldee and Syriac Grammar, in German:-Arabic Grammar, in German: -A larger Arabic Grammar, in English:-A Translation and Exposition of the Book of Ecclesiastes, in German-Hebrew Concordance, incomplete:-Philological Memoranda, etc. It is to be greatly regretted that Nordheimer did not live to complete his Concordance; the little of it extant proves the master-mind that conceived it, and gives promise of a great and valuable work. Like his grammar, it would have brought honor to American scholarship. We are glad to say that he prided himself in his new country, and honored his scholarly associates. His criticisms on Roy's Hebrew Lexicon in the Biblical Repository (April, 1838), art. vi, in which he takes occasion to condemn that book because it may prove "a reproach to the literary character of the country in which it was produced" (p. 490), evince that he delighted to be counted a contributor to American literary history. See Dr. Robinson, in the Bibliotheca Sacru (1843), p. 389-390; Mill, Reminiscences of Dr. Isaac Nordheimer, in the New-Englander (July, 1874), art. iv. See also Allibone, Dict. Brit. and Amer. Auth.

8. V.

Nores, GIASONE DI, a noted Italian metaphysician, was born at Nicosia, in the island of Cyprus, and flourished as professor of moral philosophy at the University of Padua, where he had been educated. He died in 1590. He was the author of several critical and philosophical works.

Norham, COUNCIL AT, was convened by Roger, archbishop of York and papal legate, in 1154, to determine the relation of the Scottish ecclesiastics to the English archiepiscopal see over which Roger presided. It will be remembered that when pope Gregory divided the whole British island into two ecclesiastical provinces, he confided to the archbishop of York all the dioceses north of the Trent and the Humber, and that there were no episcopal sees in the country now called Scotland, if we except Galloway and Glasgow, and both of these were uniformly admitted to belong to the province of York, as being part of the Cumbrian or ancient British Church. By the middle of the 12th century, however, the Scottish Church had so largely developed that its ecclesiastics sought independence from the English metropolitan; and the Council of Norham was con

Nordin, KARL GUSTAF, a modern Swedish prelate, was born at Stockholm in 1749, and was educated at Up-vened to determine, if possible, the question of York's sala. After taking holy orders he rapidly rose to places of distinction, and was finally made bishop of Hernosand. He died in 1812.

Nordlingen, HEINRICH OF, a celebrated mystic of the Middle Ages, flourished towards the close of the 14th century. He was a Dominican; but when brought in contact with Tauler at Strasburg he became a most faithful adherent of that mystic teacher. When Tauler was attacked, because he would not quit the Alsatian capital while the ravages of the black death continued, Nordlingen defended him, and took occasion to express his joy over the great work which the Lord wrought through him in the hearts of men in the midst of wretchedness, and remarked that he would prefer to die by the black vomit rather than to do anything against the Lord (comp. Heumanni opuscula [Norimb. 1747], p. 393). Nordlingen thereafter experienced persecution from the power of the emperor. He writes, "I have been before the princes of this world, who treat me so that I have no longer any safe residence in this country" (ibid. p.

supremacy over the Scotch dioceses. The council failing to agree, the case was carried to Rome and settled by a formal bull, which declared the Church of Scotland exempt from all jurisdiction but that of the apostolic see itself. The bishopric of Glasgow, the most important of all Scotland, was also filled by the pope about this time. See Russell, Hist. of the Ch. in Scotland, i, 107 sq. See also SCOTLAND.

Noris, ENRICO, a distinguished Italian prelate, noted as a theologian and archeologist, was born of English parentage at Verona Aug. 29, 1631. He studied philosophy and theology with the Jesuits at Rimini. The reading of the works of St. Augustine so influenced his mind that he was led to join the Augustines at Rimini. His zeal and learning soon attracted the attention of his superiors, and he was called by the general to Rome, where every facility was afforded him to continue his studies.

He became professor successively at Pesaro, Perugia, and Padua. He was now attacked by the Jesuits as inclining to Jansenism, but the grand-duke of

The leading characteristics of the Norman, or, as it is sometimes called, Anglo-Norman architectural style, are size and massiveness, combined with simplicity. The Normans evidently adopted the old Latin plan (derived from the Basilica) of central and side aisles, and at the east end they invariably placed a semicircular apse. They seized on the tower as a distinguishing feature, and developed it as their style progressed. In the early period they used but few mouldings, and those were principally confined to small features, such as the string, impost, abucus, and base, the archways being either

Tuscany chose him for his theologian, and appointed | (q. v.), and which, as its name implies, originated among him professor of theology in the University of Pisa. and was chiefly used by the Normans (q. v.). Soon The queen of Sweden appointed him also member of after their conquest of the north of France they began the academy she had just founded at Rome. Innocent to erect very large churches and cathedrals in memory XII made him librarian of the Vatican, and created him of their victories. Their conquests supplied them with cardinal in 1695. This high position did not shelter the means for erecting such large edifices, which they him from the accusations of the Jesuits, which contin- desired as monuments worthy of their great conquests. ued even after his death, Feb. 23, 1704; but they never They accordingly expanded the dimensions of many of succeeded in making him lose the confidence and friend- the small churches then common in France, while to a ship of the pope. Noris wrote Historia Pelagiana, et great extent retaining the style of the buildings. They dissertatio de synodo v acumenica, etc. (Padua, 1673, seem also to have borrowed some of their ideas from the fol.; Leips. 1677, fol.; new ed., with the addition of five Rhine. See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. historical dissertations, Louvain, 1702, fol.). Macedo and Hardouin attacked with great violence this work, which, by defending the doctrine of Augustine concerning grace, could be considered as favorable to Jansenism. Noris answered; but, although his answer was approved by the court of Rome, his work was placed in the Index in 1747 by the Spanish Inquisition, and kept in it for ten years, in spite of the representations of pope Benedict XIV:-Dissertatio duplex de duobus nummis Diocletiani et Licinii, cum auctuario chronologico de votis, etc. (Padua, 1675, 4to):-Cenotaphia Pisana Caii et Lucii Cæsarum dissertationibus illustrata (Venice, 1681, fol.; and in Burmann, Thesaurus antiq. Ital. vol. viii) :Epistola consularis, in qua collegia lxx consulum, etc. (Bologna, 1683, 4to) :-Annus et Epocha Cyro-macedonum, etc. (Florence, 1689, 4to; 2d ed. 1692, fol.; augmented by the two following, which were first published in 1691)-De Paschali Latinorum cyclo annorum lxxxiv:-De Cyclo paschali Ravennate annorum xcv. The complete works of Noris were published by Maffei, Peter, and Jerome Ballerini (Verona, 1729-41, 5 vols. 8vo). The fourth volume contains a history of the Donatists, which Noris had left unpublished. See Bianchini, Vite degli Arcadi, vol. i; Ballerini, Vie de Noris, in the above-mentioned complete edition, vol. iv; Nicéron, Mem. vol. iii; Chaufepie, Dict.; Fabroni, Vita Italorum, vol. vi.

Noritioli, a name applied by Tertullian to catechumens (q. v.), because they were just entering upon that state which made them candidates for eternal life.

Nork, FRIEDRICH, a noted Orientalist, was a convert from Judaism, his name formerly being Selig Korn. He was born at Kollin, in Prussia, in the year 1804. He studied philology, especially the ancient languages, wrote for different periodicals, while residing at Leipsic, Halle, and other places, and died in 1850. Nork was a voluminous writer, and some of his works will always be consulted with profit by theological and philo- perfectly plain or formed with a succession of square logical students. The most important of his writings angles, and the capitals of the pillars, etc., were for the are, Braminen und Rabbinen, oder Indien das Stamm most part entirely devoid of ornament. Sculpture was land der Hebräer und ihrer Fabeln (Meissen, 1836):- very sparingly used before the 12th century, and was Mythen der alten Perser, als Quellen christl. Glaubens- frequently added to the earlier buildings at some later lehren (Leips. 1835):-Die Weihnachts- u. Osterfeier er- enrichment were introduced, and some of the later specperiod. As the style advanced, greater lightness and klärt aus dem Sonnenkultus der Orientalen (ibid. 1838):Rabbinische Quellen und Parallelen zu neutestamentlichen mens exhibit a profusion of ornaments. The mouldShriftstellen, mit Benutzung der Schriften von Light-rounds and hollows, with small fillets, and sometimes ings were but little varied, and consisted principally of foot, Wetstein, Meuschen, Schöttgen, Danz u. a. (ibid. splays intermixed. A very common mode of decorating 1839):-Vergleichende Mythologie zum näheren Verständniss der Bibelstellen (ibid. 1836):- Der Prophet buildings in this style was with rows of small shallow Elias, ein Sonnenmythus (ibid. 1837):-Das Leben Mosis niches or panels, which were often formed of intersectaus dem astrognostischen Standpunkte betrachtet (ibid. ing arches, and some of them were frequently pierced to form windows. The doorways were often very deeply 1838):- Hebräisch-chaldäisch-rabbinisches Wörterbuch (Li. Grimma, 1842):-Etymologisch-symbolisch-mytholo-recessed, and had several small shafts in the jambs, gisches Real-Wörterbuch für Bibelforscher, Archäologen, stones with the other parts of the work and built up in which, when first introduced, were cut on the same etc. (Stuttgard, 1843, 4 vols.):-Der Mystagog, oder Deutung der Geheimlehren, Symbole und Feste der christl. courses, but at the latter end of the style they were fre Kirche (Leips. 1838):-Die Götter Syriens (Stuttgard, quently set separately, like the Early English, and occa1842). See Fürst, Bibl. Judaica, ii, 204 sq.; Stein- sionally were also banded; in many doorways, especially schneider, Bibliographisches Handbuch, p. 103, No. 1453 small ones, the opening reached no higher than the level of the springing of the arch, and was terminated flat, the sq. (B. P.) tympanum or space above it being usually filled with sculpture or other ornament. The windows were not usually of large size, and in general appearance resembled small doors; they had no mullions, but sometimes

Normal Year. See YEAR.

Norman Architecture is that species of architectural style which is counted a part of the Romanesque

ticed; at an early period the aisles of churches were vaulted with plain groining without bosses or diagonal ribs, but the main parts had flat ceilings, or were covered with cylindrical vaults, as at the chapel in the White Tower of London. The Norman arch was round, either semicircular or horse-shoe, and sometimes the impost moulding or capital was considerably below the level of the springing, and the mouldings of the arch were prolonged vertically down to it; this arrangement was common in the arches round the semicircular apses of churches, as at St. Bartholomew's, in West Smithfield, London; it was not till the latter part of the 12th century, when the Norman style was in a state of transition into Early English, that the pointed arch was commonly introduced, but some buildings erected at this period retained the Norman characteristics in considerable purity. The best example in the British realm of an early ecclesiastical structure in this style is the chapel in the White Tower of London; later specimens are to be found in very many English cathedrals and parish churches; the churches of Iffley, Oxford, and Barfreston, Kent, are striking examples of late date; the latter of these shows considerable signs of the near approach of the Early English style.

The Norman style of architecture prevailed from Late Norman Doorway, Middleton Stoney, Oxford, c. 1160. about the beginning of the 10th century till the death of William the Conqueror, near the end of the 11th centhey were arranged in pairs (not unfrequently under a tury. In Normandy there are many examples, the larger arch), with a single shaft between them; towards churches at Caen being well-known buildings of the the end of the style they were occasionally grouped to-date of William. This style of architecture was taken gether in threes, like the Early English. The pillars at first were very massive, but subsequently became much lighter; they were sometimes channelled, or moulded in zigzag or spiral lines, as at Durham Cathedral; in plan they differed considerably, though not so much as in some of the later styles; the commonest forms were plain circles, or polygons, sometimes with small shafts attached, and a cluster of four large semicircles with smaller shafts in rectangular recesses between them. The buttresses were most commonly broad, and of small projection, either uniting with the face of the parapet, or terminating just below the cornice; sometimes they had small shafts worked on the angles, and occasionally half-shafts were used instead of buttresses. Spires and pinnacles were not used in this style, but there are some turrets, of rather late date, which have conical tops, as at the west end of Rochester Cathedral, and in Normandy several small church towers have steep pyramidal stone roofs. It was not till towards the end of the Norman style that groining on a large scale was prac

into England by the Normans at the Conquest, 1066. They there extended the scale of the buildings, as they had done in Normandy, preserving, however, many local peculiarities of the Saxon style which they found in the country. The chapel in the White Tower of the Tower of London is, as we have said, the earliest example of pure Norman work in England. There are, however, it may be added, many buildings, both in England and Scotland, which date from before the end of the 12th century, when the pointed style began to be used. Durham, Lindisfarne, Canterbury, Dunfermline, are partially Norman, besides many other churches and castles. There are some buildings of this style dating back even to the time of Edward the Confessor, or earlier still, but the style is so very rude that it can hardly claim the name of Norman. The Anglo-Norman is heavier than the French-Norman, the cylindrical nave piers of the above buildings being much more massive than those of French works. To relieve this heaviness, the chevron, spiral, and other groovings were cut in the piers. The mouldings and forms of doors, windows, etc., are the same as those of Normandy. There is one remarkable difference in the plans of the Early Norman I churches in the two countries: in France the apse at the east end is always semicircular; in England this form was gradually given up; and towards the end of the style the square east end was universally adopted. See Milman, Hist. of Latin Christianity, viii, 436, 437; Parker, Glossary of Architecture, s. v.; Milner, Eccles. Arch. of England during the Middle Ages (Lond. 1811, 8vo), ch. iii.

Norman, GEORG. See SWEDEN.

Normans (i. e. Northmen, or Norse-men), a name generally limited in its application to those sea-rovers who established themselves in that part of France called after them Normandy, is sometimes applied also to the early inhabitants of Norway, and is often extended to embrace in its meaning, as it did in the Middle Ages, those numerous Saxon tribes who inhabited the peninsula of Jutland, and in the 9th and 10th centuries invaded Russia, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, and even landed in England, and possibly, too, were the first Europeans who set foot on the American shore. The Germans and French called the piratical hordes who ravaged their shores Normans or Northmen; the Saxons, usually

Their

Danes or Eastmen. They were also distinguished by the the country. Finally, the Anglo-Saxon king, Alfred, latter as Mark- or March-men (from Den-mark), as Ask- succeeded in making a treaty by which the Normans men (i. e. men of the ashen-ships), and as the Heathen. received about half the country, on the condition of The primary cause of the plundering expeditions south- their king, Gudruna, submitting to baptism, and recog ward and westward across the seas, undertaken by the nising king Alfred as his suzerain. The English chron Norse vikings (vikingar meaning either "warriors," or icles consider Alfred as having converted the Danes; more probably dwellers on the rics, i. e. bays or fiords), yet Northumberland remained still heathen, and in as they called themselves, under leaders who took the other parts the Norman population was only in part name of "sea-kings," was doubtless the over-population Christian. From a treaty concluded by Edward, Aland consequent scarcity of food in their native homes; fred's successor, with the subsequent Danish king, Gudbesides, the relish for a life of warlike adventure, con- run, it appears however that Christianity was already joined with the hope of rich booty, strongly attracted the state religion of the Danish population in England them; while at least as long as the old Scandinavian in the early part of the 10th century. The penalties religion lasted (i. e. till about the end of the 10th cen- imposed on such as fell back into idolatry, laws for the tury)-death in battle was not a thing to be dreaded, security of Church property, etc., prove that it was for the slain hero passed into a region of eternal triumph legally recognised. We also find Normans holding in the Walhalla of Odin. Finally, discontent with the high offices in the Church. Fresh invasions of the ever-increasing power of the greater chiefs, or kings, Normans and inroads into the territory of the Angloinduced many of the nobles with their followers to seek Saxons continued during the 10th century. new homes. frontiers were gradually extended, and finally, in 1016, the Dane Canute was recognised king of England. Once on the throne, he sought to heal the dissensions existing between the two parties by his mild and moderate administration. He issued a number of decrees concerning ecclesiastical subjects. The Christian religion was alone recognised, but needed the support of the government in order successfully to resist the influence of the heathen Norman emigrants: thus, in 1012, archbishop Ælfetah of Canterbury, having been made prisoner, had been cruelly put to death by the Danes, who were incensed at the zeal he had displayed for their conversion. The Norman dynasty founded by Canute was of short duration; the brother of the last Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the Confessor, ascended the throne of England thirty years after Canute, but he never fully succeeded in conciliating the Normans; and under his successor, Harold II, the French Normans invaded the kingdom, under the guidance of William the Conqueror, in 1066. Thus England fell again under Norman rule; yet the conquerors adopted the customs, laws, and language of the conquered, and the Norman element exercised no marked influence on religious or ecclesiastical matters. See ENGLAND.

The invasions of these heathen warriors into France were most numerous from the death of Charlemagne to the beginning of the 10th century. The invaders remained mostly heathen. Occasionally some chieftain with his followers consented to be baptized, and to acknowledge the king of France for his sovereign, on which condition they received a portion of land. The most important of these invasions was that of 912, under the guidance of the Norwegian chief Hrolf, better known as Rollo, first duke of Normandy, and direct ancestor in the sixth generation of William the Conqueror. King Charles III, it is said, offered Rollo a considerable territory on the north of France, and his daughter Gisla for wife, on the condition of his advancing no farther into the country, and defending the kingdom against further invasions from his countrymen. Rollo accepted, the treaty was concluded at St. Clair, on the Epte (A.D. 912), and the Normans took possession of the northern portion of France, from the Andelle to the sea, which was from them called Normandy. Rollo was soon after baptized by archbishop Franco of Rouen, together with his followers. A certain archbishop Arvæus, of Rheims, is said to have been very active in the conversion of these Normans. Still the mass of the people remained heathen; the occasional conversions were mostly the result of temporal considerations, and the converts not unfrequently returned to idolatry. It is even related of Rollo that after his baptism he continued to worship his former deities along with the true God. Under the reign of his son the Normans had already become fully identified with the French, having even adopted the language of the country. This contributed naturally to attach them more to the religion of the French; and it is said that their count, William, went so far in his enthusiasm for Christianity as to contemplate retirement into a convent. Fresh arrivals of heathen Normans would occasionally, however, stop for a moment all progress. At the same time with Rollo's invasion, another army of the Normans had landed upon the western coasts of France, and established itself strongly near the mouth of the Loire. A part of them settled, in 921, in Brittany and around Nantes. See FRANCE.

The invasions of the Northmen into England were still more numerous and important; they sought at an early moment to secure a permanent footing in that country. The first invasion we find recorded took place in 787; after 795 they became quite common. Numerous battles which took place between the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans in 832 and 833 show that the latter had already advanced far inland, and were trying to establish themselves permanently. Here, as in France, we find their leaders gradually embracing the Christian faith in exchange for land secured to them. One of their principal invasions was that led by the renowned Ragnar Lodbrog. After a long struggle they succeeded, in 870, in securing the whole western portion of England, and from thence they gradually spread into other parts of

In Ireland the Norman invasions commenced about the end of the 8th century, and after many efforts they succeeded in 852 in founding there a kingdom, of which the centre was at Dublin, but which did not stand long. They also founded less important settlements, which they had much trouble in defending against the native inhabitants. We possess but little information concerning the particulars of their conversion, but most of the Norman inhabitants of Ireland appear to have been Christians in the middle of the 11th century.

Iceland was discovered by the Northmen in 860, and settled in 874. In 876 or 877 Greenland was discovered, and a colony was planted there by Eric the Red in 983985.

It is from the latter country that, according to Icelandic sagas, the Northmen went out and discovered America in 986, touching at Newfoundland; and that in 1001 thirty-five men went out again to further pursue the discovery, under the leadership of Leif, son of Eric the Red, and besides visiting Newfoundland, they touched at what is now supposed to be Nova Scotia and the coast of New England. At the last-named land they wintered, and returned to Greenland, their vessels freighted with timber. In the following year Leifs brother Thorwald visited, it is supposed, Mount Hope Bay, R. I. In 1004 these Northmen explored the coast eastward, but had a skirmish with the Indians, and lost their leader. In 1005 they returned to Greenland; but in 1007 Karlsefni, a rich Icelander, set sail for the New England coast-by them called Vinland (Vine-Land)—– with three ships, one hundred and sixty men, and some cattle, and passed three winters on the New England coast; but the hostility of the natives finally obliged him to quit the country. The old Icelandic MSS.