themselves to meaner persons than in service. | dreamed the night before he was slain, that a Believe not much, them, that seem to despise golden head was growing out of the nape of his riches, for they despise them that despair of neck; and indeed the succession that followed them; and none worse when they come to them. | him, for many years, made golden times. Henry Be not penny-wise; riches have wings, and the Sixth of England said of Henry the Seventh, sometimes they fly away of themselves, some- when he was a lad, and gave him water, “This times they must be set flying to bring in more. is the lad that shall enjoy the crown for which we Men leave their riches either to their kindred, or strive." When I was in France, I heard from one to the public; and moderate portions prosper best Dr. Pena, that the queen mother, who was given in both. A great state left to an heir, is as a lure to curious arts, caused the king her husband's natito all the birds of prey round about to seize on vity to be calculated under a false name; and the ashim, if he be not the better established in years trologer gave a judgment, that he should be killed and judgment: likewise, glorious gifts and foun- in a duel; at which the queen laughed, thinking dations are like sacrifices without salt; and but her husband to be above challenges and duels: but the painted sepulchres of alms, which soon will pu- he was slain upon a course at tilt, the splinters of trefy and corrupt inwardly: therefore measure not the staff of Montgomery going in at his beaver. thine advancements by quantity, but frame them The trivial prophecy which I heard when I was a by measure and defer not charities till death; child, and Queen Elizabeth was in the flower of for, certainly, if a man weigh it rightly, he that her years, was, doth so is rather liberal of another man's than of his own. XXXV. OF PROPHECIES. I MEAN not to speak of divine prophecies, nor of heathen oracles, nor of natural predictions: but only of prophecies that have been of certain memory, and from hidden causes. Saith the Pythonissa to Saul, “To-morrow thou and thy son shall be with me." Virgil hath these verses from Homer: "At domus Æneæ cunctis dominabitur oris, Et nati natorum, et que nascentur ab illis."* A prophecy as it seems of the Roman empire. Seneca the tragedian hath these verses: "Venient annis Sæcula seris, quibus Oceanus "When hempe is sponne whereby it was generally conceived, that after the "There shall be seen upon a day, When that is come and gone, England build houses of lime and stone, It was generally conceived to be meant of the Spanish fleet that came in eighty-eight: for that the king of Spain's surname, as they say, is Norway. The prediction of Regiomontanus, "Octogesimus octavus mirabilis annus," was thought likewise accomplished in the send ing of that great fleet, being the greatest in strength, though not in number, of all that ever As for Cleon's dream, swam upon the sea. I a prophecy of the discovery of America. The daughter of Polycrates dreamed that Jupiter bathed her father, and Apollo anointed him; and it came to pass that he was crucified in an open place, where the sun made his body run with sweat, and the rain washed it. Philip of Macedọn dreamed he sealed up his wife's belly; where-think it was a jest; it was, that he was devoured by he did expound it, that his wife should be bar- of a long dragon; and it was expounded of a ren; but Aristander the soothsayer told him his maker of sausages, that troubled him exceedingly. wife was with child, because men do not use to There are numbers of the like kind; especially if seal vessels that are empty. A phantasm that ap- you include dreams, and predictions of astrology; peared to M. Brutus in his tent, said to him, but I have set down these few only of certain "Philippis iterum me videbis." Tiberius said to credit, for example. My judgment is, that they Galba, “Tu quoque, Galba, degustabis impe-ought all to be despised, and ought to serve but rium." In Vespasian's time there went a prophe- for winter talk by the fireside: though when I say cy in the East, that those that should come forth despised, I mean it as for belief: for otherwise, out of Judea, should reign over the world; which the spreading or publishing of them is in no sort though it may be was meant of our Saviour, yet to be despised, for they have done much mischief: Tacitus expounds it of Vespasian. Domitian and I see many severe laws made to suppress them. That that hath given them grace, and * Homeri Ilias, Y. 307–308. some credit, consisteth in three things. First, that men mark when they hit, and never mark when they miss; as they do, generally, also of dreams Νῦν δὲ δὴ Αἰνείαο βὶη Τρώεσσιν ανάξει, | The second is, that probable conjectures, or ob- | the best remedy against ambitious great ones: for scure traditions, many times turn themselves into when the way of pleasuring and displeasuring prophecies; while the nature of man, which covet- lieth by the favourite, it is impossible any other eth divination, thinks it no peril to foretell that should be over great. Another means to curb which indeed they do but collect; as that of Se-them is, to balance them by others as proud as neca's verse; for so much was then subject to demonstration, that the globe of the earth had great parts beyond the Atlantic, which might be probably conceived not to be all sea and adding thereto the tradition in Plato's Timæus, and his Atlanticus, it might encourage one to turn it to a prediction. The third and last (which is the great one) is, that almost all of them, being infinite in number, have been impostures, and by idle and crafty brains merely contrived and feigned after the event past. XXXVI. OF AMBITION. AMBITION is like choler, which is an humour that maketh men active, earnest, full of alacrity, and stirring, if it be not stopped: but if it be stopped, and cannot have its way, it becometh a dust, and thereby malign and venomous: so ambitious men, if they find the way open for their rising, and still get forward, they are rather busy than dangerous; but if they be checked in their desires, they become secretly discontent, and look upon men and matters with an evil eye, and are best pleased when things go backward; which is the worst property in a servant of a prince or state: therefore it is good for princes, if they use ambitious men, to handle it so, as they be still progressive, and not retrograde, which, because it cannot be without inconvenience, it is good not to use such natures at all: for if they rise not with their service, they will take order to make their service fall with them. But since we have said, it were good not to use men of ambitious natures, except it be upon necessity, it is fit we speak in what cases they are of necessity. Good commanders in the wars must be taken, be they never so ambitious; for the use of their service dispenseth with the rest; and to take a soldier without ambition, is to pull off his spurs. There is also great use of ambitious men in being screens to princes in matters of danger and envy; for no man will take that part except he be like a seeled dove, that mounts and mounts, because he cannot see about him. There is use also of ambitious men in pulling down the greatness of any subject that overtops; as Tiberius used Macro in the pulling down of Sejanus. Since, therefore, they must be used in such cases, there resteth to speak how they are to be bridled, that they may be less dangerous; there is less danger of them if they be of mean birth, than if they be noble; and if they be rather harsh of nature, than gracious and popular and if they be rather new raised, than grown cunning and fortified in their greatness. It is counted by some a weakness in princes to have favourites; but it is, of all others, they: but then there must be some middle counsellors, to keep things steady; for without that ballast the ship will roll too much. At the least, a prince may animate and inure some meaner persons to be, as it were, scourges to ambitious men. As for the having of them obnoxious to ruin, if they be of fearful natures, it may do well; but if they be stout and daring, it may precipitate their designs, and prove dangerous. As for the pulling of them down, if the affairs require it, and that it may not be done with safety suddenly, the only way, is the interchange continually of favours and disgraces, whereby they may not know what to expect, and be, as it were, in a wood. Of ambitions, it is less harmful the ambition to prevail to great things, than that other to appear in every thing; for that breeds confusion, and mars business; but yet, it is less danger to have an ambitious man stirring in business, than great in dependences. He that seeketh to be eminent amongst able men, hath a great task; but that is ever good for the public: but he that plots to be the only figure amongst ciphers, is the decay of a whole age. Honour hath three things in it; the vantage ground to do good; the approach to kings and principal persons; and the raising of a man's own fortunes. He that hath the best of these intentions, when he aspireth, is an honest man; and that prince that can discern of these intentions in another that aspireth, is a wise prince. Generally, let princes and states choose such ministers as are more sensible of duty than of rising, and such as love business rather upon conscience than upon bravery; and let them discern a busy nature, from a willing mind. XXXVII. OF MASQUES AND TRIUMPHS. THESE things are but toys to come amongst such serious observations; but yet, since princes will have such things, it is better they should be graced with elegancy, than daubed with cost. Dancing to song, is a thing of great state and pleasure. I understand it that the song be in quire, placed aloft, and accompanied by some broken music; and the ditty fitted to the device. Acting in song, especially in dialogues, hath an extreme good grace; I say acting, not dancing, (for that is a mean and vulgar thing;) and the voices of the dialogue would be strong and manly, (a base and a tenor, no treble,) and the ditty high and tragical, not nice or dainty. Several quires placed one over against another, and taking the voice by catches anthem-wise, give great pleasure. Turning dances into figure is a childish curiosity; and generally let it be noted, that those things which or rushes; but, after a time let him practise with "Optimus ille animi vindex lædentia pectus : I here set down are such as do naturally take the sense, and not respect petty wonderments. It is true, the alterations of scenes, so it be quietly and without noise, are things of great beauty and pleasure; for they feed and relieve the eye before it be full of the same object. Let the scenes abound with light, especially coloured and varied; and let the masquers, or any other that are to come down from the scene, have some motions upon the scene itself before their coming down; for it draws the eye strangely, and makes it with great pleasure to desire to see that it cannot perfectly discern. Let the songs be loud and cheerful, and not chirpings or pulings: let the music likewise be sharp and loud, and well placed. The colours that show best by candle-light, are white, carnation, Neither is the ancient rule amiss, to bend nature and a kind of sea-water green and ouches, or as a wand to a contrary extreme, whereby to set it spangs, as they are of no great cost, so they are of most glory. As for rich embroidery, it is lost right; understanding it where the contrary extreme is no vice. Let not a man force a habit upon himand not discerned. Let the suits of the masquers self with a perpetual continuance, but with some be graceful, and such as become the person when intermission for both the pause reinforceth the the vizards are off; not after examples of known attires; Turks, soldiers, mariners, and the like. new onset; and, if a man that is not perfect be Let anti-masques not be long; they have been ever in practice he shall as well practise his errors as his abilities, and induce one habit of both; and commonly of fools, satyrs, baboons, wild men, there is no means to help this but by seasonable antics, beasts, spirits, witches, Ethiopes, pigmies, intermission; but let not a man trust his victory turquets, nymphs, rustics, Cupids, statues moving, over his nature too far; for nature will lie buried a and the like. As for angels, it is not comical and any great time, and yet revive upon the occasion, or enough to put them in anti-masques ; thing that is hideous, as devils, giants, is, on the temptation; like as it was with Æsop's damsel, other side as unfit; but chiefly, let the music of turned from a cat to a woman, who sat very dethem be recreative, and with some strange changes. murely, at the board's end till a mouse ran before Some sweet odours suddenly coming forth, with-her; therefore, let a man either avoid the occasion altogether, or put himself often to it, that he out any drops falling, are, in such a company as may be little moved with it. there is steam and heat, things of great pleasure best perceived in privateness, for there is no affecA man's nature is and refreshment. Double masques, one of men, another of ladies, addeth state and variety; but tation; in passion, for that putteth a man out of his all is nothing except the room be kept clean and precepts; and in a new case or experiment, for there custom leaveth him. They are happy men whose natures sort with their vocations; otherwise they may say, " multum incola fuit anima mea,” when they converse in those things they do not affect. In studies, whatsoever a man commandeth upon himself, let him set hours for it; but whatsoever is agreeable to his nature, let him take no care for any set times; for his thoughts will fly to it of themselves, so as the spaces of other business or studies will suffice. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore let him seasonably water the one, and destroy the other. XXXIX. OF CUSTOM AND EDUCATION, neat. For jousts, and tourneys, and barriers, the glories of them are chiefly in the chariots, wherein the challengers make their entry; especially if they be drawn with strange beasts; as lions, bears, camels, and the like; or in the devices of their entrance, or in bravery of their liveries, or in the goodly furniture of their horses and armour. But enough of these toys. XXXVIII. OF NATURE IN MEN. NATURE is often hidden, sometimes overcome, seldom extinguished. Force maketh nature more violent in the return; doctrine and discourse maketh nature less importune; but custom, only, doth alter and subdue nature. He that seeketh victory over his nature, let him not set himself too great nor too small tasks; for the first will make him dejected by often failing, and the second will make him a small proceeder, though by often prevailing: and at the first, let him practise with helps, as swimmers do with bladders MEN'S thoughts are much according to their inclination; their discourse and speeches according to their learning and infused opinions; but their deeds are after as they have been accustomed: and, therefore, as Machiavel well noteth, (though in an evil-favoured instance,) there is no trusting to the force of nature, nor to the bravery of words, except it be corroborate by custom. His instance is, that for the achieving of a desperate conspiracy, a XL. OF FORTUNE. man should not rest upon the fierceness of any man's nature, or his resolute undertakings; but take such an one as hath had his hands formerly It cannot be denied but outward accidents conin blood; but Machiavel knew not of a Friar Cle- duce much to fortune; favour, opportunity, death ment, nor a Ravillac, nor a Jaureguy, nor a Bal- of others, occasion fitting virtue: but chiefly, the tazar Gerard; yet this rule holdeth still, that na- mould of a man's fortune is in his own hands. ture, nor the engagement of words, are not so for- "Faber quisque fortunæ suæ, saith the poet; cible as custom. Only superstition is now so and the most frequent of external causes is, that well advanced, that men of the first blood are as the folly of one man is the fortune of another; for firm as butchers by occupation; and votary reso- no man prospers so suddenly as by others' errors; lution is made equipollent to custom even in matter "Serpens nisi serpentem comederit non fit draco.” of blood. In other things, the predominancy of Overt and apparent virtues bring forth praise; custom is everywhere visible, insomuch as a man but there be secret and hidden virtues that bring would wonder to hear men profess, protest, en- forth fortune; certain deliveries of a man's self, gage, give great words, and then do just as they which have no name. The Spanish name "dishave done before, as if they were dead images emboltura" partly expresseth them, when there and engines, moved only by the wheels of custom. be not stonds nor restiveness in a man's nature, We see also the reign or tyranny of custom, what but that the wheels of his mind keep way with it is. The Indians (I mean the sect of their wise the wheels of his fortune; for so Livy (after he men) lay themselves quietly upon a stack of had described Cato Major in these words, “In wood, and so sacrifice themselves by fire: nay, the illo viro, tantum robur corporis et animi fuit, ut wives strive to be burned with the corpse of their quocunque loco natus esset, fortunam sibi facturus husbands. The lads of Sparta, of ancient time, videretur,") falleth upon that that he had “versatile were wont to be scourged upon the altar of Diana, ingenium :" therefore, if a man look sharply and without so much as squeaking. I remember, in attentively, he shall see Fortune; for though she the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's time of Eng- be blind, yet she is not invisible. The way of land, an Irish rebel condemned, put up a petition fortune is like the milky way in the sky: which to the deputy that he might be hanged in a wyth, is a meeting, or knot, of a number of small stars, and not in a halter, because it had been so used not seen asunder, but giving light together: so with former rebels. There be monks in Russia, are there a number of little and scarce discerned for penance, that will sit a whole night in a ves- virtues, or rather faculties and customs, that make sel of water, till they be engaged with hard ice. men fortunate: the Italians note some of them, Many examples may be put of the force of custom, such as a wise man would little think. When they both upon mind and body: therefore, since custom speak of one that cannot do amiss, they will throw is the principal magistrate of man's life, let men into his other conditions, that he hath "Poco di by all means endeavour to obtain good customs. matto ;" and, certainly, there be not two more forCertainly, custom is most perfect when it begin- tunate properties, than to have a little of the fool, neth in young years: this we call education, and not too much of the honest: therefore extreme which is, in effect, but an early custom. So we lovers of their country, or masters, were never see, in languages the tongue is more pliant to all fortunate: neither can they be; for when a man expressions and sounds, the joints are more sup- placeth his thoughts without himself, he goeth ple to all feats of activity and motions in youth, not his own way. An hasty fortune maketh an than afterwards; for it is true, that late learners enterpriser and remover; (the French hath it cannot so well take the ply, except it be in some better, "entreprenant," or "remuant;") but the minds that have not suffered themselves to fix, exercised fortune maketh the able man. Fortune but have kept themselves open and prepared to re- is to be honoured and respected, and it be but for ceive continual amendment, which is exceeding her daughters, Confidence and Reputation; for rare: but if the force of custom, simple and sepa- those two Felicity breedeth; the first within a rate, be great, the force of custom, copulate and man's self, the latter in others towards him. All conjoined and collegiate, is far greater; for their wise men, to decline the envy of their own virtues, example teacheth, company comforteth, emulation use to ascribe them to Providence and Fortune; quickeneth, glory raiseth; so as in such places for so they may the better assume them; and, bethe force of custom is in its exaltation. Certain-sides, it is greatness in a man to be the care of the ly, the great multiplication of virtues upon human higher powers. So Cæsar said to the pilot in the nature resteth upon societies well ordained and tempest, " Cæsarem portas, et fortunam ejus." So disciplined; for commonwealths and good govern- Sylla chose the name of "Felix," and not of ments do nourish virtue grown, but do not much" Magnus:" and it hath been noted, that those mend the seeds: but the misery is, that the most who ascribe openly too much to their own wisdom effectual means are now applied to the ends least and policy, end unfortunate. It is written, that to be desired. Timotheus, the Athenian, after he had, in the ac count he gave to the state of his government, often | inventions, wherein money would be stirring, if interlaced this speech, "and in this fortune had no it were not for this slug: the last, that it is the part," never prospered in any thing he undertook canker and ruin of many men's estates, which in afterwards. Certainly there be, whose fortunes process of time breeds a public poverty. are like Homer's verses, that have a slide and easiness more than the verses of other poets; as Plutarch saith of Timoleon's fortune in respect of that of Agesilaus or Epaminondas: and that this should be, no doubt it is much in a man's self. XLI. OF USURY. MANY have made witty invectives against asury. They say that it is pity the devil should have God's part, which is the tithe; that the usurer is the greatest Sabbath-breaker, because his plough goeth every Sunday; that the usurer is the drone that Virgil speaketh of : "Ignavum fucos pecus a præsepibus arcent;" that the usurer breaketh the first law that was made for mankind after the fall, which was "in sudore vultûs tui comedes panem tuum;" not "in sudore vultûs alieni;" that usurers should have orange tawny bonnets, because they do judaize; that it is against nature for money to beget money, and the like. I say this only, that usury is a "concessum propter duritiem cordis :" for since there must be borrowing and lending, and men are so hard of heart as they will not lend freely, usury must be permitted. Some others have made suspicious and cunning propositions of banks, discovery of men's estates, and other inventions; but few have spoken of usury usefully. It is good to set before us the incommodities and commodities of usury, that the good may be either weighed out, or culled out; and warily to provide, that, while we make forth to that which is better, we meet not with that which is worse. On the other side, the commodities of usury are, first, that howsoever usury in some respect hindereth merchandising, yet in some other it advanceth it; for it is certain that the greatest part of the trade is driven by young merchants upon borrowing at interest; so as if the usurer either call in, or keep back his money, there will ensue presently a great stand of trade: the second is, that, were it not for this easy borrowing upon interest, men's necessities would draw upon them a most sudden undoing, in that they would be forced to sell their means (be it lands or goods) far under foot, and so, whereas usury doth but gnaw upon them, bad markets would swallow them quite up. As for mortgaging or pawning, it will little mend the matter for either men will not take pawns without use, or if they do, they will look precisely for the forfeiture. I remember a cruel moneyed man in the country, that would say, "The devil take this usury, it keeps us from forfeitures of mortgages and bonds.” : The third and last is, that it is a vanity to conceive that there would be ordinary borrowing without profit; and it is impossible to conceive the number of inconveniences that will ensue, if borrowing be cramped: therefore to speak of the abolishing of usury is idle; all states have ever had it in one kind or rate or other: so as that opinion must be sent to Utopia. It To speak now of the reformation and reglement of usury, how the discommodities of it may be best avoided, and the commodities retained. appears, by the balance of commodities and discommodities of usury, two things are to be reconciled; the one that the tooth of usury be grinded, that it bite not too much; the other that there be left open a means to invite moneyed men to lend to the merchants, for the continuing and quickening of trade. This cannot be done, except you introduce two several sorts of usury, a less and a greater; for if you reduce usury to one low rate, it will ease the common borrower, but the merchant will be to seek for money: and it is to be most lucrative, may bear usury at a good rate: other contracts not so. The discommodities of usury are, first, that it makes fewer merchants; for were it not for this lazy trade of usury, money would not lie still, but would in a great part be employed upon merchandising, which is the "vena porta" of wealth in a state: the second, that it makes poor merchants; for as a farmer cannot husband his ground so well if he sit at a great rent, so the merchant cannot | noted, that the trade of merchandise being the drive his trade so well, if he sit at great usury: the third is incident to the other two; and that is, the decay of customs of kings, or estates, which ebb or flow with merchandising: the fourth, that it bringeth the treasure of a realm or state into a few hands; for the usurer being at certainties, and others at uncertainties, at the end of the game most of the money will be in the box; and ever a state flourisheth when wealth is more equally spread; the fifth, that it beats down the price of land; for the employment of money is chiefly either merchandising, or purchasing, and usury waylays both the sixth, that it doth dull and damp all industries, improvements, and new To serve both intentions, the way would be briefly thus; that there be two rates of usury; the one free and general for all; the other under license only to certain persons, and in certain places of merchandising. First, therefore, let usury in general be reduced to five in the hundred, and let that rate be proclaimed to be free and current; and let the state shut itself out to take any penalty for the same; this will preserve borrowing from any general stop or dryness; this will ease infinite borrowers, in the country; this will, in good part. raise the price of land, because land purchased at |