that twofold principle of pure air and constellation | what rate of conduct it incites and checks itself, be not put off, nor yet flame extended to the heaven and what the nature may be of those influences of heavens. It affirms that stars are real flames, which really act upon it. In our progress of unbut that the actions of flame in the heavens should folding these things, we will refer to computations in no wise be wrested into a comparison with the and tables, that beautiful mathematical dogma, actions of flame with us, most of which operate (that all motions are restrained to circles, perby casualty. It affirms that the ether interspersed fect, or eccentric, or concentric,) and that high among stars, and the stars themselves, have re-flown dictum, (that the earth is, in respect of the spective relations to air and flame, but sublimated firmament, like a point of no magnitude,) and and rectified. And thus, with respect to the sub- many more feigned discoveries of astronomers. stance of the constitution or system of the uni- But, first, we will divide the heavenly motions: verse, some such ideas as these have suggested some are cosmici, others, ad invicem. Those we themselves to our mind. call cosmici, which the heavenly bodies acquire from the consent not only of the heavens, but of the universe: those ad invicem, in which some heavenly bodies depend on others: and this is a true and necessary division. On the supposition, then, of the earth standing still, (for that, at present, appears to us the truer hypothesis,) it is manifest that the heavens are carried round by a diurnal motion, the measure of which motion is the space of twenty-four hours, or thereabouts; and, consequently, the revolution is from east to west, upon certain points, (which they call poles,) south and north: moreover, the heavens are not whirled round movable poles, nor, back again, are the points different from those stated: and this motion verily seems in harmony with universal nature, and therefore sole, except as far as it admits both of decrements and declinations; according to which decrements and declinations, this motion shoots through every thing movable, and pervades all space, from the constellated firmament even to the very bowels and inmost recesses of the earth; not by any snatched or harassing course, but by perpetual consent; and that motion in the constellated firmament is perfect and entire, as well as to a just measure of time, as by a full restoration of place; but, inasmuch as that motion recedes from the summit of the heavens, insomuch does it become more imperfect, with a reference to its slowness as well as its aberration from a circular motion. And, first, we must speak distinctly of that slowness. We affirm, that the diurnal motion of Saturn is too slow to carry it round, and restore it to the same point in twenty-four hours; but that the starry firmament is carried on quicker, and outstrips Saturn by such an excess, as, in as many days as complete thirty years, would agree with a whole circuit of the heavens. The same is to be said of the rest of the planets, according to the difference of the periodic time of each planet; so that the diurnal motion of the starry firmament (in that same period, without any regard to the magnitude of the circle) is nearly by one hour swifter than the diurnal motion of the moon; for, if the moon could complete its revolution in twenty-four days, then that excess would be one whole hour; wherefore that much talked of motion, in an opposite and contrary direction, from We must now speak of the motions of the heavenly bodies, on account of which we have adduced these premises. It appears reasonable to suppose that rest is not excluded from nature as to any whole, (for we are not now discoursing of small parts.) This (waiving logical and mathematical subtleties) is mainly evident from the fact, that the inciting causes, and the velocities of the heavenly motions, gradually slacken themselves, as tending to ultimate cessation, and because that, even the heavenly bodies partake of rest, hard by the poles, and because, if immobility be excluded the system, it is dissolved and dissipated. But, if there be a certain accumulation and mass of matter of an immovable nature, there seems no further room to doubt that it is the globe of the earth; for a dense and close cementing of matter disposes toward a languid and reluctant motion; as, on the contrary, a loose unfolding of it towards a brisk and ready one. And not without reason did Telesius (who revived the philosophy and discussions of Parmenides in a treatise on the principle of cold,) introduce into nature, not, indeed, a co-essentiality and coupling, (which was his wish,) but, however, an affinity and agreement, to wit, on one side, of hot, shining, rare, and immovable, and, on the opposite part, of cold, dark, dense, and immovable, by placing the site of the first harmony in the heavens, of the second on the earth. But, if rest and immobility be conceded, it seems fit that we also suppose a motion without limit and to the uttermost movable, especially in natures opposed to each other. This motion is commonly rotatory, such as is generally found in the heavenly bodies; for, motion in a circle has no termination, and seems to flow from a natural desire of the body, which moves, only that it may move, and follow itself, and seek its own embraces, and excite its nature, and enjoy it, and exercise itself in its proper operation; whereas, a motion in a right line may seem a finite journeying, and a movement to a boundary of cessation or rest, and that it may attain somethang, and then quietly lay down its motion. Wherefore, respecting that rotatory motion, which motion is true and perennial, and commonly supposed peculiar to the heavenly bodies, we must inquire how it equips itself in the outset, and by ing,) that they have the same limits of declination. For neither doth Saturn return within the tropics, nor does the moon stray beyond the tropics, (and yet we must not dismiss from our consideration what has been handed down and remarked by some upon the wanderings of the planet Venus,) but all the planets, whether superior or inferior, after their arrival at the tropics, turn themselves, and recommence a course back again, weary of a lesser spiral range, such as they would have to undergo, if they did approach nearer the poles; and dreading that loss of motion as destructive of their nature. For, howsoever it may be, in the starry firmament, both the stars near the poles, and those about the equinoctial, preserve their ranks and positions, reduced into order, one by another, with steadfastness and consummate uniformity; nevertheless, the planets seem to be of that mixed nature, that they admit not willingly an ampler circuit, nor bear at all a shorter. Furthermore, these doctrines concerning the heavenly motions seem to us somewhat preferable to forced and opposite motions, and of a different polarity of the zodiac, and an inverted order of velocity, and such like, which in no way agree with the nature of things, though they may in a manner accord with calculations. Neither have eminent astronomers been blind to these matters, but, wrapped up in their craft, and reveries of perfect circles, catching at subtleties and the evil results of a fashionable philosophy, they have disdained to follow nature. Truly, however, is that despotic decretal against nature of wise men more mischievous, than the very simplicity and utter credulity of the uninformed, when any one, for instance, looks with scorn at truth, because it is manifest. And yet huge is that evil, and most widely extended, that the human intellect, whenever it finds itself unequal to subjects, has a predilection to soar above them. west to east, which is attributed as peculiar to the | and more nearly resemble circles, but the inferior planets, is not true, but only apparent, from the curves more disjoined and eccentric; for, by deoutstripping of the starry firmament toward the scending more and more, there is a perpetual west, and the leaving behind of the planets departure both from that prime state of velocity towards the east, which being granted, it is evi-and that perfect circular motion, by a law of dent that the velocity of that cosmical motion, by nature nowhere interrupted. In this, however, an unperturbed law of nature, as it descends, the planets agree, (as bodies retaining much of a decreases, so that the nearer each planet ap-common nature, though in other respects differproaches the earth, the slower it moves; whereas the received opinion overthrows and turns upside down that law; and by attributing a motion of their own to the planets, falls into the absurdity, that the planets, the nearer they are to the earth, (which is, naturally, the place of rest,) in that ratio have their celerity increased; which astronomers, in the most trifling and unsuccessful manner, attempt to excuse, by a relaxation of the force of the primum mobile. But if it seem to any one a matter of wonder, that, in spaces so vast as interpose between the starry firmament and the moon, that motion should gradually decrease by portions so small, by less, to wit, than one hour, which is the twenty-fourth part of the diurnal motion; it subsides when we consider that each planet, the nearer it is to the earth, completes lesser circles, revolving in a shorter circuit; so that, the decrement of the size of the circle being added to the decrement of the periodic time, that motion is perceived to decrease in a marked manner. Up to this time we have spoken of the velocity, absolutely and apart, as if the planets, placed, for example, in the plane of the equator, or of any of its parallels, were simply overtaken by the starry firmament, and by one another, but yet in that selfsame circle; for this would be a mere leaving behind, without any respect to obliquity. But it is manifest, that the planets not only hasten on their course with unequal relative speed, but do not return to the same point of a circle, but decline towards the south and the north, the limits of which declination are the tropics; which declination has produced a circle oblique to us, and its different polarity; after the same manner that that inequality of velocity has caused the motion of an opposite action. Nor really is there need of this figment in the nature of things, since, by introducing spiral lines, (the thing that comes nearest to sense and fact,) the matter in dispute may be settled, and those points be safe and sound. Besides, (which is the sum and substance of the matter,) these spirals are nothing else than deviations from a perfectly circular motion, which the planets cannot bear; for in proportion as the substances degenerate in purity and expansion, so also do their motions. But it happens, that as in point of celerity the higher planets are carried on quicker, and the inferior slower; so, also, that the superior planets form spires that approximate* *Propiores, if not misprinted for propriores, must respect the foci of the ellipses; which explains "disjunctas:" but, But now we must inquire whether that one and simple motion in a circle, and in a spiral curve, from east to west, upon certain south and north poles, cease and terminate with the heavens, or it also be conveyed down to things beneath. For it would not be ingenuous in us to feign here in this nether region such aphorism as they suppose with respect to the heavens. Wherefore, if in these regions be also found that motion, it if the illustrious author did write propiores, why did he after. wards tautologize by saying "quæque circulos propius refe rant ?” * | astronomers shape new and, as they suppose, corrected theories, and adapt causes eternal and invariable to things more frequently, as it were, fortuitous. will appear that, even in the heavens, it is of like | Indeed, from this source proceeds that prodigious kind, according to a nature common or cosmical, evil, that, on the appearance of every irregularity with that we experience. In the first place, then, it is plainly evident, that it is not confined to the limits of the heavens. But the demonstrations and proofs of this matter we have fully laid down in our anticipation respecting the flowing and The second is, that those turbulent actions of ebbing of the sea; therefore, to that we refer; compression, expansion, resistance, and yielding, and this being supposed and taken for granted, which seem to be produced by a certain softness we will proceed to the rest of the heavenly and hardness of bodies, taken for elementary quamotions. But these we have said are not cosmi- lities, are not compatible with the heavens, which cal, but reciprocal. There are four kinds of is doubtless of the fifth and least elementary motions visible in the heavens, besides that which essence. But this assertion is a presumptuous we have called cosmical, which is a diurnal and arbitrary reprobation of things and sense. motion in curves within the tropics. For either For wheresoever any body in nature is in a state the stars are raised higher, and again depressed of rest, there also is a reluctance to change, and lower, as they may be farther from and nearer to that in proportion to the size of the body. But the earth; or they bend and wind themselves wherever are natural bodies, and a local motion, through the latitude of the zodiac, by running there will take place either repulsion, or a yieldout more to the south, or more to the north, and ing, or resolution of motion;* for those things by traversing what they call the dragons; or which have been named compactness, looseness they vary from an incited and also an acquisitive of parts, resistance, a giving way, with many motion,† (for we join together these two,) ad- others, are what matter universally undergoes vancing sometimes quicker, sometimes slower, everywhere. Yet, however, from this source sometimes progressively, sometimes retrogres- have come down to us all that multiplicity of sively, sometimes even stopping and staying; or orbits capriciously jumbled together, which, neat a certain distance from the sun, they are more vertheless, they are pleased to say are so disor less bound together and drawn round each tinctly interlineated, and which move and turn other. We will recount the causes and natures within each other so evenly and glibly, that, of these only, generally touching the heads of notwithstanding their intricacy, there is no eneach; for our present undertaking requires that tangling or vibration; all which are visionary and to be done in this place. But in order to this, a palpable mockery of facts. and to secure beforehand, as well as to open the way, we must frankly declare our sentiments upon some of the maxims of philosophers, as also upon certain hypotheses of astronomers, as well as their observations during several ages, out of which materials they built up their mysteries; all which things appear to us to be full of error and confusion. Wherefore there are axioms, or rather certain conceits, which, received by philosophers, and transferred to astronomy, and unfortunately being credited, have corrupted the science. Our rejection of them will be simple, as well as our judgment upon them; for it is not suitable to waste precious time on silly refutations. The first of these is, that all things above the moon inclusively are incorruptible; and in no degree or form whatever do they undergo new beginnings or changes; of which it has been said elsewhere, that it is a fond and silly saying. * The twelve signs of the zodiac, I presume; so called because most of them resemble some living creature; thus, Eurip., in Oreste, has Apakovrádns, 'draconibus, seu anguibus plenus ;” or it may mean the two nodes, which comes to the same thing, represented by the head and the tail of the Dragon; for, the ascending node and Dragon's head have the same character to denote each, (;) so, likewise, the descending node and Dragon's tail (8.) Consecution, used by Newton; does it mean 'picked up on its revolution,' or an orderly accompanying, &c.; a relative motion; or a train of consequential motion, incitatio referring to orginal? A third is, that to each individual body appertains a peculiar and appropriate motion; and if more motions are observable, all, except one, are extrinsic, and derived from some other moving body. Nothing falser than this can be conceived, since all bodies, from the manifold consent of things, are endued with even many motions, some denoting their nature, others waxing weaker and weaker, others even lying hid until they be drawn forth; but there are no special or proper motions of things, except the exact measures and ratios of common motions. And hence again has been presented to us that primum mobile severed and made distinct, and heavens on heavens, and newfangled mansions contained in them, that they may suffice for the performances of so many different motions. The fourth is, that all heavenly motions are distributed through perfect circles; which is a very cumbrous doctrine, and has produced to us those monsters of eccentric curves and epicycles ; whereas, however, had they consulted nature, a regulated and uniform motion belongs to a perfect circle; but a motion, regulated, indeed, but of *Sectio means, classically, a confiscation of goods, division of spoil, &c., so, possibly, here it may mean dissipation of motion; if the illustrious author uses it here for secutio, (a sequor,) then it means an "orderly following," (consequentia εTaxоλovonois,) but such a word in such a sense is utterly unclassical. different forms, such as is found in many of the | the eye, and at that, in a calculation, and which heavenly bodies, is the property of other lines; and with good reason Gilbert ridicules these, because it is not likely that nature should have formed wheels, which, for example, contain one or two miles in circumference, in order that a ball of a finger's breadth should be sustained: for of so little magnitude does the body of a planet appear to be, compared with those circles round which they pretend it is to be carried. The fifth is, that stars are parts of their sphere, as if fixed therein by a nail. But this is most clearly a revery of those who deal in mathematics, not in nature, and are so stupidly intent on the motion of bodies, that they entirely forget their substances. For that fastening is a particular disposition of compact and consistent things, which have firm cohesions, because of the pressures of the parts. But it is utterly to be unlooked for, if it be applied to soft or liquid substances. possibly may be a reality, on account of some true change in the heavens, calls into existence new firmaments, new spheres, and new circles. And we do not make these remarks in order that any relaxation in the taking of observations or the study of history should take place, both which we are of opinion should by all means be stimulated and intently prosecuted; but only that, in rejecting or changing hypotheses, the highest prudence and a mature gravity of judgment be displayed. Wherefore, having now laid open the road as to the motions themselves, we will say a few words also as to their nature. We have already said, then, that there are four kinds of motions of the higher order in the heavens: an ascending and descending motion through the whole expanse of the heavens; a motion, to the breadth of the zodiac, stretching out towards south and north: a motion in the course of the zodiac, quick, slow, progressive, retrograde, stable; and the motion of elongation from the sun. And let not any one object, that that second motion of the breadth of the zodiac or of the signs* thereof may be referred to that great cosmical motion, since there is an inclination by turns towards the south and the north; which as well as the curves themselves from one tropic to the other are alike, except that the latter motion is merely curvilinear, but the former hath also many turnings, and lies inmost The sixth is that a star is a denser part of its sphere of action; for the stars are not only not parts, but neither are they denser; for they are not homogeneous with either, and that in degree only, but they are entirely heterogeneous, and differ in substance; and, besides, that substance, as to density, is rarer, and more expanded than an ethereal one. Over and above these there are many other conceits of equal whimsicality; but these shall suffice for the subject now under discussion. Again, these observations have been made on the fanciful dicta of philosophy respect-at much less distances. For neither hath this ing the heavens. But as to what respects the hypotheses of astronomers, the refutation of them is generally without any use; for neither are they asserted for truths, nor is it impossible that, although they may vary and be contradictory in themselves, the phenomena should equally be preserved and harmonize. Therefore, if you please, between astronomy and philosophy, as if linked together by an expedient and legitimate bond, be so circumspect a mediator, that, on the one hand, astronomy may have her previous hypotheses, which are best adapted to expedite calculations; on the other, philosophy, such as approach nearest to the truth of nature; and so that the hypotheses of astronomy may not prejudice the truth of a thing, and that the decisions of philosophy may be such as may easily be explained with regard to the phenomena of astronomy. And so much for hypotheses. Now, as to astronomical observations, which are assiduously accumulated, and continually are pouring down like water from the sky, I have a great wish to admonish men on that head; lest, haply, that be true of them, which is so elegantly fabled of the fly in Æsop, that sitting on the harness of a chariot, contending for victory at the Olympic games, cried out, "see what dust I excite!" Just so, any petty observation, vacillating, at one time, in the instrument, at this, in point escaped our consideration. But assuredly the constant and perpetual motion of the sun in the ecliptic, considered apart from all latitude and exclusively of the signs of the zodiac, which same sun does yet communicate with the rest of the planets, as to their paths within the tropics, does not allow us to entertain this opinion. Wherefore, we must seek for different sources of this and of the other three motions. And these are the points, with regard to the heavenly motions, which appear to us to be fraught with a less degree of inconvenience. But we must see what they may be found to deny, and what to affirm. They deny that the earth revolves. They deny that there are in the heavens two motions from the east to different points of the west; and they affirm one, that outstrips and consequently leaves behind others. They deny any oblique circle and its different polarity, and they affirm spiral curves. They deny a primum mobile separated and forced asunder; and they affirm a cosmical consent, as it were the common bond of the system. They affirm that a diurnal motion is found not in the sky or heavens, but in the air, in waters, even in what are placed on the superficies of the earth, as far as relates to their turning * See note on "dracones," p. 420. the sun, from the defective nature of weaker flames, of Venus and Mercury; since even the moving stars, the attendants of Jupiter, have been discovered by Galilæus. But these are matters of which we, standing as it were in the threshold of natural history, and of philosophy, take a prospective view-subjects which, probably, the inquirer will be better qualified to prove, in proportion to the depth of his researches into natural history. But, again, however, do we enter our protest against this fetter of intellect. In these, as in other matters, we are sure of the correctness of our career, though we be not so persuaded as to the station we are entitled to hold in it. But we have mentioned these topics during our intel round. They affirm that that close following | has prescribed, in the planets both of the greater and cosmical rolling in fluids is their whirling and lesser orbit. They affirm the following after tendency to become consistent, till at length they reach a state of perfect rest. They deny that the stars are fixed like knots in a board. They deny that eccentric circles, epicycles, and such like crafty devices are realities. They affirm that a magnetic motion, or one having a power to collect matter together, is in full vigour in the stars, by which fire elicits fire, and elevates it. They affirm that, in the firmament of the planets, the bodies of the planets move and revolve quicker than the rest of the heavens in which they are placed, which certainly revolves, but slower. They affirm from that inequality the waves, the undulations, the flowings and ebbings of the ethereal atmosphere of the planets; and from them that various motions are drawn forth. They lectual journey, lest any one should suppose, that affirm a necessity in the planets of revolving quicker or slower, according as they may be placed higher or lower in the heavens, and that from the consent of the universe. But at the Wherefore, we will retain, as the heavenly nasame time they affirm the languor, resulting from tures are wont to do, (since our treatise is of them,) an incitement in their course beyond what nature la dignified constancy. from a wavering judgment, or a destitution of talent to maintain the position, we had a preference for advocating negative questions. THOUGHTS AND OBSERVATIONS OF FRANCIS BACON, OF VERULAM, CONCERNING THE INTERPRETATION OF NATURE, OR THE INVENTION OF THINGS AND OF WORKS. FRANCIS BACON thought in this manner. The knowledge whereof mankind is now possessed doth not extend to certainty and magnitude of works. Physicians pronounce many diseases incurable, and often make mistakes, and fail in the treatment of the rest. Alchymists wax old and die in the embraces of hope. The works of magicians are transitory and barren. The mechanical arts take but little light from philosophy, and do but spin on slowly the little threads of their own experience. Chance is, without doubt, a peneficial discoverer of inventions; but one that scatters her favours among men in distant ages and periods. So he saw well, that the inventions of man, which we possess, must be counted very imperfect and immature; and that, in the present state of the sciences, are not now to be expected, except in a great length of time; and that those which human industry has hitherto produced cannot be ascribed to philosophy. He thought also, that in this narrowness of man's power, that is most deplorable at present, and ominous for the future; that men, contrary to their real interest, strive to rescue ignorance from shame, and to satisfy themselves in this poverty. For, the physician, besides the cautels of practice, (in which there are no small means of defending the credit of his art,) calls in what is, as it were, a general cautel of art, by turning into a reproach upon nature the weakness of his art; and, what art doth not reach, that he discharges from art upon nature, as an impossibility; neither can art be condemned, when itself judges. That philosophy also, out of which the knowledge of physic, which now is in use, is hewn, itself receives and cherishes certain positions and opinions, which, |