times upon kindness, sometimes upon trouble of telligenced in every several kind. The second mind and weakness, they open themselves; es- is, to keep a good mediocrity in liberty of speech pecially if they be put to it with a counter-dissi-and secrecy; in most things liberty: secrecy mulation, according to the proverb of Spain, "Di | where it importeth; for liberty of speech inmentira, y sacaras verdad." (Tell a lie and find the truth.)

viteth and provoketh liberty to be used again, and so bringeth much to a man's knowledge; and secrecy, on the other side, induceth trust and inwardness. The last is, the reducing of a man's self to this watchful and serene habit, as to make account and purpose, in every conference and action, as well to observe as to act. For as Epictetus would have a philosopher in every particular action to say to himself, "Et hoc volo, et etiam

As for the knowing of men, which is at second hand from reports; men's weaknesses and faults are best known from their enemies, their virtues and abilities from their friends, their customs and times from their servants, their conceits and opinions from their familiar friends, with whom they discourse most. General fame is light, and the opinions conceived by superiors or equals are de-institutum servare;" so a politic man in every ceitful: for to such, men are more masked: "Verior fama e domesticis emanat."

thing should say to himself, "Et hoc volo, ac etiam aliquid addiscere." I have stayed the lonBut the soundest disclosing and expounding of ger upon this precept of obtaining good informamen is by their natures and ends, wherein the tion, because it is a main part by itself, which anweakest sort of men are best interpreted by their swereth to all the rest. But, above all things, caunatures, and the wisest by their ends. For it was tion must be taken that men have a good stay and both pleasantly and wisely said, though I think hold of themselves, and that this much knowledge very untruly, by a nuncio of the pope, returning | do not draw on much meddling: for nothing is from a certain nation where he served as lieger; more unfortunate than light and rash intermedwhose opinion being asked touching the appoint-dling in many matters. So that this variety of ment of one to go in his place, he wished that in any case they did not send one that was too wise; because no very wise man would ever imagine what they in that country were like to do. And certainly it is an error frequent for men to shoot over, and to suppose deeper ends, and more compass-reaches than are: the Italian proverb being elegant, and for the most part true:

"Di danari, di senno, e di fede,

C'e ne manco che non credi."

(There is commonly less money, less wisdom, and less good faith than men do account upon.)

knowledge tendeth in conclusion but only to this, to make a better and freer choice of those actions which may concern us, and to conduct them with the less error and the more dexterity.

The second precept concerning this knowledge is, for men to take good information touching their own person, and well to understand themselves: knowing that, as St. James saith, though men look oft in a glass, yet they do suddenly forget themselves; wherein as the divine glass is the word of God, so the politic glass is the state of the world, or times wherein we live, in the which we are to behold ourselves.

For men ought to take an impartial view of their own abilities and virtues; and again of their wants and impediments; accounting these with the most, and those other with the least; and from this view and examination to frame the considerations following.

But princes, upon a far other reason, are best interpreted by their natures, and private persons by their ends; for princes being at the top of human desires, they have for the most part no particular ends whereto they aspire, by distance from which a man might take measure and scale of the rest of their actions and desires; which is one of the causes that maketh their hearts more First, to consider how the constitution of their inscrutable. Neither is it sufficient to inform nature sorteth with the general state of the times; ourselves in men's ends and natures, of the which if they find agreeable and fit, then in all variety of them only, but also of the predominan- things to give themselves more scope and liberty; cy, what humour reigneth most, and what end is but if differing and dissonant, then in the whole principally sought. For so we see, when Tigel-course of their life to be more close, retired, and linus saw himself outstripped by Petronius Tur- reserved: as we see in Tiberius, who was never pilianus in Nero's humours of pleasures, "metus cjus rimatur" (he wrought upon Nero's fears,) whereby he broke the other's neck.

seen at a play, and came not into the senate in twelve of his last years; whereas Augustus Cæsar lived ever in men's eyes, which Tacitus ob serveth, " Alia Tiberio morum via."

But to all this part of inquiry the most compendious way resteth in three things: the first, to Secondly, to consider how their nature sorteth have general acquaintance and inwardness with with professions and courses of life, and accordthose which have general acquaintance and look | ingly to make election, if they be free; and, if most into the world; and especially according to engaged, to make the departure at the first opporthe diversity of business, and the diversity of per-tunity: as we see was done by Duke Valentine, sons to have privacy and conversation with some that was designed by his father to a sacerdotal one friend, at least, which is perfect and well in- profession, but quitted it soon after in regard of VOL. I.-30

U 2

his parts and inclination; being such, neverthe- | of a few. But if it be carried with decency and less, as a man cannot tell well whether they were government, as with a natural, pleasant, and inworse for a prince or for a priest.

genious fashion; or at times when it is mixed with some peril and unsafety, as in military persons; or at times when others are most envied; or with easy and careless passage to it and from it, without dwelling too long, or being too serious; or with an equal freedom of taxing a man's

Thirdly, to consider how they sort with those whom they are like to have competitors and concurrents; and to take that course wherein there is most solitude, and themselves like to be most eminent: as Julius Cæsar did, who at first was an orator or pleader; but when he saw the excel-self, as well as gracing himself; or by occasion lency of Cicero, Hortensius, Catulus, and others, for eloquence, and saw there was no man of reputation for the wars but Pompeius, upon whom the state was forced to rely, he forsook his course begun toward a civil and popular greatness, and transferred his designs to a martial greatness.

Fourthly, in the choice of their friends and dependences, to proceed according to the composition of their own nature: as we may see in Casar; all whose friends and followers were men active and effectual, but not solemn, or of reputation.

of repelling or putting down others' injury or insolence; it doth greatly add to reputation: and surely not a few solid natures, that want this ventosity, and cannot sail in the height of the winds, are not without some prejudice and disadvantage by their moderation.

But for these flourishes and enhancements of virtue, as they are not perchance unnecessary, so it is at least necessary that virtue be not disvalued and embased under the just price; which is done in three manners: by offering and obtruding a man's self; wherein men think he is rewarded, when he is accepted; by doing too much, which will not give that which is well done leave to settle, and in the end induceth satiety; and by finding too soon the fruit of a man's virtue, in commendation, applause, honour, favour; wherein if a man be pleased with a little, let him hear what is truly said; "Cave ne insuetus rebus majoribus videaris, si hæc te res parva sicuti magna

Fifthly, to take special heed how they guide themselves by examples, in thinking they can do as they see others do; whereas perhaps their natures and carriages are far differing. In which error it seemeth Pompey was, of whom Cicero saith, that he was wont often to say, "Sylla potuit, ego non potero?" Wherein he was much abused, the natures and proceedings of himself and his example being the unlikest in the world; | delectat." the one being fierce, violent, and pressing the fact; But the covering of defects is of no less imthe other solemn, and full of majesty and circum-portance than the valuing of good parts; which stance, and therefore the less effectual.

But this precept touching the politic knowledge of ourselves, hath many other branches, whereupon we cannot insist.

may be done likewise in three manners, by caution, by colour, and by confidence. Caution is when men do ingeniously and discreetly avoid to be put into those things for which they are not Next to the well understanding and discerning proper: whereas, contrariwise, bold and unquiet of a man's self, there followeth the well opening spirits will thrust themselves into matters without and revealing a man's self; wherein we see no- difference, and so publish and proclaim all their thing more usual than for the more able men to wants. Colour is, when men make a way for make the less show. For there is a great advan-themselves, to have a construction made of their tage in the well setting forth of a man's virtues, faults and wants, as proceeding from a better fortunes, merits; and again, in the artificial cover-cause, or intended for some other purpose: for of ing of a man's weaknesses, defects, disgraces; the one it is well said, "Sæpe latet vitium proxistaying upon the one, sliding from the other; mitate boni," and therefore whatsoever want a cherishing the one by circumstances, gracing the man hath, he must see that he pretend the virtue other by exposition, and the like: wherein we see that shadoweth it; as if he be dull, he must afwhat Tacitus saith of Mutianus, who was the fect gravity; if a coward, mildness; and so the greatest politician of his time, "Omnium quæ rest: for the second, a man must frame some prodixerat feceratque arte quâdam ostentator:" which bable cause why he should not do his best, and requireth indeed some art, lest it turn tedious and why he should dissemble his abilities; and for arrogant; but yet so as ostentation, though it be that purpose must use to dissemble those abilities to the first degree of vanity, seemeth to me rather which are notorious in him, to give colour that his a vice in manners than in policy: for as it is said, true wants are but industries and dissimulations. “Audacter, calumniare, semper aliquid hæret:" For confidence, it is the last but surest remedy; so, except it be in a ridiculous degree of deform-namely, to depress and seem to despise whatsoity, “Audacter te vendita, semper aliquid hæret." For it will stick with the more ignorant and inferior sort of men, though men of wisdom and rank do smile at it, and despise it; and yet the authority won with many doth countervail the disdain

ever a man cannot attain; observing the good principle of the merchants, who endeavour to raise the price of their own commodities, and to beat down the price of others. But there is a confidence that passeth this other; which is, to

face out a man's own defects, in seeming to conceive that he is best in those things wherein he is failing; and, to help that again, to seem on the other side that he hath least opinion of himself in those things wherein he is best: like as we shall see it commonly in poets, that if they show their verses, and you except to any, they will say, that that line cost them more labour than any of the rest; and presently will seem to disable and suspect rather some other line, which they know well enough to be the best in the number. But above all, in this righting and helping of a man's self in his own carriage, he must take heed he show not himself dismantled, and exposed to scorn and injury, by too much dulceness, goodness, and facility of nature; but show some sparkles of liberty, spirit, and edge: which kind of fortified carriage, with a ready rescuing of a man's self from scorns, is sometimes of necessity imposed upon men by somewhat in their person or fortune; but it ever succeedeth with good felicity.

Another precept of this knowledge, which hath some affinity with that we last spake of, but with difference, is that which is well expressed, "Fatis accede Deisque," that men do not only turn with the occasions, but also run with the occasions, and not strain their credit or strength to over hard or extreme points; but choose in their actions that which is most passable: for this will preserve men from foil, not occupy them too much about one matter, win opinion of moderation, please the most, and make a show of a perpetual felicity in all they undertake; which cannot but mightily increase reputation.

Another part of this knowledge seemeth to have some repugnancy with the former two, but not as I understand it; and it is that which Demosthenes uttereth in high terms; "Et quemadmodum receptum est, ut exercitum ducat imperator, sic et a cordatis viris res ipsæ ducendæ; ut quæ ipsis videntur, ea gerantur, et non ipsi eventus tantum persequi cogantur." For, if we observe, we shall find two different kinds of sufficiency in managing of business: some can make use of occasions aptly and dexterously, but plot little; some can urge and pursue their own plots well, but cannot accommodate nor take in; either of which is very imperfect without the other.

Another precept of this knowledge is, by all possible endeavour to frame the mind to be pliant and obedient to occasion; for nothing hindereth men's fortunes so much as this; "Idem manebat, neque idcm decebat," men are where they were, when occasions turn: and therefore to Cato, whom Livy maketh such an architect of fortune, he Another part of this knowledge is the observing addeth, that he had "versatile ingenium." And a good mediocrity in the declaring, or not declarthereof it cometh that these grave solemn wits, ing a man's self: for although depth of secrecy, which must be like themselves, and cannot make and making way, qualis est via navis in mari,” departures, have more dignity than felicity. But (which the French call sourdes menées, when in some it is nature to be somewhat viscous and men set things in work without opening theminwrapped, and not easy to turn; in some it is a selves at all,) be sometimes both prosperous and conceit, that is almost a nature, which is, that admirable; yet many times "Dissimulatio errores men can hardly make themselves believe that parit, qui dissimulatorem ipsum illaqueant;" and they ought to change their course, when they therefore, we see the greatest politicians have in have found good by it in former experience. For a natural and free manner professed their desires, Machiavel noted wisely, how Fabius Maximus rather than been reserved and disguised in them; would have been temporizing still, according to for so we see that Lucius Sylla made a kind of his old bias, when the nature of the war was profession, "that he wished all men happy or altered and required hot pursuit. In some other unhappy, as they stood his friends or enemies." it is want of point and penetration in their judg- So Cæsar, when he went first into Gaul, made no ment, that they do not discern when things have scruples to profess, "that he had rather be first in a period, but come in too late after the occasion; a village than second at Rome." So again, as as Demosthenes compareth the people of Athens soon as he had begun the war we see what Cicero to country fellows, when they play in a fence saith of him, "Alter (meaning of Cæsar) non school, that if they have a blow, then they remove | recusat, sed quodammodo postulat, ut, ut est, sic their weapon to that ward, and not before. In appelletur tyrannus." So we may see in a letter some other it is a loathness to leese labours passed, of Cicero to Atticus, that Augustus Cæsar in his and a conceit that they can bring about occasions very entrance into affairs, when he was a darling to their ply; and yet in the end, when they see of the senate, yet in his harangues to the people no other remedy, then they come to it with disad- would swear, "Ita parentis honores consequi vantage; as Tarquinius, that gave for the third liceat," which was no less than the tyranny; save part of Sibylla's books the treble price, when he that, to help it, he would stretch forth his hand might at first have had all three for the simple. towards a statue of Cæsar's that was erected in But from whatsoever root or cause this restiveness the place: whereat many men laughed, and wonof mind proceedeth, it is a thing most prejudicial;|dered, and said, Is it possible? or, Did you ever and nothing is more politic than to make the wheels of our mind concentric and voluble with the wheels of fortune.

hear the like to this? and yet thought he meant no hurt; he did it so handsomely and ingenuously. And all these were prosperous: whereas Pompey,

who tended to the same end, but in a more dark | I may condemn with like reason as Machiavel and dissembling manner, as Tacitus saith of him, "Occultior, non melior," wherein Sallust concurreth, "ore probo, animo inverecundo," made it his design, by infinite secret engines to cast the state into an absolute anarchy and confusion, that the state might cast itself into his arms for necessity and protection, and so the sovereign power be put upon him, and he never seen in it: and when he had brought it, as he thought, to that point, when he was chosen consul alone, as never any was, yet he could make no great matter of it, because men understood him not; but was fain, in the end, to go the beaten track of getting arms into his hands, by colour of the doubt of Cæsar's designs: so tedious, casual, and unfortunate are these deep dissimulations: whereof, it seemeth, Tacitus made his judgment, that they were a cunning of an inferior form in regard of true policy; attributing the one to Augustus, the other to Tiberius; where, speaking of Livia, he saith, "Et cum artibus mariti simulatione filii bene composita:" for surely the continual habit of dissimulation is but a weak and sluggish cunning, and not greatly politic.

Another precept of this architecture of fortune is, to accustom our minds to judge of the proportion or value of things, as they conduce and are material to our particular ends; and that to do substantially, and not superficially. For we shall find the logical part, as I may term it, of some men's minds good, but the mathematical part erroneous; that is, they can well judge of consequences, but not of proportions and comparasons, preferring things of show and sense before things of substance and effect. So some fall in love with access to princes, others with popular fame and applause, supposing they are things of great purchase: when in many cases they are but matters of envy, peril, and impediment.

So some measure things according to the labour and difficulty, or assiduity, which are spent about them; and think, if they be ever moving, that they must needs advance and proceed: as Cæsar saith in a despising manner of Cato the Second, when he describeth how laborious and indefatigable he was to no great purpose; "Hæc omnia magno studio agebat." So in most things men are ready to abuse themselves in thinking the greatest means to be best, when it should be the fittest.

As for the true marshalling of men's pursuits towards their fortune, as they are more or less material, I hold them to stand thus: first the amendment of their own minds; for the remove of the impediments of the mind will sooner clear the passages of fortune than the obtaining fortune will remove the impediments of the mind. In the second place I set down wealth and means, which I know most men would have placed first; because of the general use which it beareth to wards all variety of occasions: but that opinion,

doth that other, that moneys were the sinews of the wars; whereas, saith he, the true sinews of the wars are the sinews of men's arms, that is, a valiant, populous, and military nation: and he voucheth aptly the authority of Solon, who, when Creesus showed him his treasury of gold, said to him, that if another came that had better iron, he would be master of his gold. In like manner it may be truly affirmed, that it is not moneys that are the sinews of fortune, but it is the sinews and steel of men's minds, wit, courage, audacity, resolution, temper, industry, and the like. In the third place I set down reputation, because of the peremptory tides and currents it hath; which, they be not taken in their due time, are seldom recovered, it being extreme hard to play an aftergame of reputation. And lastly, I place honour, which is more easily won by any of the other three, much more by all, than any of them can be purchased by honour. To conclude this precept, as there is order and priority in matter, so is there in time, the preposterous placing whereof is one of the commonest errors; while men fly to their ends when they should intend their beginnings, and do not take things in order of time as they come on, but marshal them according to greatness, and not according to instance; not observing the good precept, “Quod nunc instat agamus."

Another precept of this knowledge is, not to embrace any matters which do occupy too great a quantity of time, but to have that sounding in a man's ears, "Sed fugit interea, fugit irreparabile tempus:" and that is the cause why those which take their course of rising by professions of burden, as lawyers, orators, painful divines, and the like, are not commonly so politic for their own fortunes, otherwise than in their ordinary way, because they want time to learn particulars, to wait occasions, and to devise plots.

Another precept of this knowledge is, to imitate nature, which doth nothing in vain; which surely a man may do if he do well interlace his business, and bend not his mind too much upon that which he principally intendeth. For a man ought in every particular action so to carry the motions of his mind, and so to have one thing under another, as if he cannot have that he seeketh in the best degree, yet to have it in a second, or so in a third; and if he can have no part of that which he purposed, yet to turn the use of it tɔ somewhat else; and if he cannot make any thing of it for the present, yet to make it as a seed of somewhat in time to come; and if he can contrive no effect or substance from it, yet to win some good opinion by it, or the like. So that he should exact account of himself of every action, to reap somewhat, and not to stand amazed and confused if he fail of that he chiefly meant: for nothing is more impolitic than to mind actions wholly one by one; for he that doth so leeseth infinite occa

As for evil arts, if a man would set down for himself that principle of Machiavel, "that a man seek not to attain virtue itself, but the appearance only thereof; because the credit of virtue is a help, but the use of it is cumber:" or that other of his principles, "that he presuppose, that men are not fitly to be wrought otherwise but by fear; and therefore that he seek to have