Robertson, of "raking together a thousand irrelevant thrums of mythology, picked up at random from every age, race and clime."138

The idea of the Suffering Just Man was so natural that it may also be found in Plato and the later Stoics. As to the more precise conception, that he should be put to death by crucifixion, that also is found in Plato (Republic, 362A) as well as in Psalm xxii and possibly in Zechariah. This form of execution being the common one was quite naturally thought of, just as burning at the stake became the typical punishment for heresy in Christendom. That our poet really had Psalm xxii in mind in Ode XXVII on the cross, may be inferred from the fact that he quotes from it twice again in the very next poem.139 In Justin Martyr's copy of the Bible (at Ephesus) there was also a prophecy, "The Lord hath reigned from the tree," which he accuses the Jews of erasing.140 "Bearing the cross," however, had become proverbial, and may be read in Cicero, Artemidorus, Bereshith Robba and Plutarch11 before it found its way into the oldest Christian document,142 Q. As Q knows nothing of the passion of Jesus,143 it here furnishes striking testimony to the currency of the idea in proto-Christian circles independently of, and prior to, the crucifixion under Pilate. This evidence is amply supported by other early documents. The saying that Christ suffered "according to the scriptures"144 clearly indicates that Paul, Mark, Matthew and Luke all found the essential features of his death set forth in the Hebrew Bible. The author

138 F. C. Conybeare, The Historical Christ, 1914, p. 95.

139 Ode XXVIII, 8 = Ps. xxii. 7; Ode XXVIII, 11 = Ps. xxii. 16.

140 To Psalm xcvi. First Apology, XLI; Dialogue, Chap. 73.

W. C. Allen, Commentary on Matthew, ad locum, X, 16.

143 Matt. x. 16 Luke xiv. 27.

143 This positive statement of Harnack is supported by the latest student of the synoptic problem, W. Haupt: Worte Jesu und Gemeindeüberlieferung, 1913. He analyzes Q into several strata, but none of them touch the passion.

1441 Cor. xv. 3; Mark ix. 12; Matt. xxvi. 24; Acts iii. 18.

of 1 Peter only puts it a little more explicitly when he says: "The Spirit of Christ testified beforehand the sufferings of Christ."'145 In saying this it is probable that he had the Odes of Solomon in mind. At any rate I think these poems can be adduced in favor of my present contention. Written, in my judgment, wholly without reference to the "historic Jesus," they yet contain vague allusions to a crucified Messiah. They are, in short, a brilliant example of das werdende Dogma vom Leben Christi.

The doctrine of the descensus ad inferos found in Ode XLII offers no difficulty. In the first place our earliest witnesses point to an Ephesian origin for this doctrine as applied to Christ. It is found in the Gospel of Peter,146 in Justin Martyr,147 in Irenaeus,148 in 1 Peter 149 and in Ephesians. 150 Secondly, this dogma is founded on a pre-Christian myth of a battle between the powers of Heaven and Hell.' It is applied to personified Wisdom, in the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach.152 There is therefore no occasion for surprise in finding it in an undeveloped form in the Odes. It was later applied not only to Jesus but to the Mandaean Saviour. 153 This would again indicate some connection of the doctrine with the Johannites, and, as a matter of fact, early legend sent John to Hades 154 as the precursor of Jesus. It is remarkable that the connection already seems to have been made by the author of 1 Peter155

141 Peter i. 11.

168

On the relation of this gospel to the Ephesian Fourth Gospel, cf. Erbes in Zeitschrift f. Kirchengesch., XXXIII, 234f.

147 Dialogue, Chap. 72.

148

Adv. Haer., IV, 27.

W. Bousset, Kyrios Christos, 1913, p. 38.

"In the Latin translation of xxiv. 32. This may be a Christian interpolation, but is not necessarily so, says Bousset, p. 34.

15 Bousset, 38.

154

Hippolytus, Christ and Antichrist, Chap. 45; Origen, Hom. IV in Luc., ed. Lommatsch, V, 99; Tract. Orig., ed. Batiffol, 155; Descensus, II, 2.

159 iii. 18ff.

who places the descensus in close proximity to remarks about baptism:

"Because Christ also suffered for sins once, the righteous for the unrighteous, that he might bring us to God, being put to death in the flesh, but quickened in the spirit; in which also he went and preached unto the spirits in prison which aforetime were disobedient, when the longsuffering of God waited in the days of Noah, while the ark was a preparing, wherein few, that is, eight souls, were saved through water: which also after a true likeness doth now save you, even baptism.”

It is plain to me that the author of the lines had in mind some source very like that used by Ode XLII. At any rate the date should decide the question. If the Odes were really written in the middle of the first century they cannot be dependent on legends of the second century, though these may well be dependent on them.

A last word may be devoted to the author's person. The only possible name to suggest is that of Apollos, and we know too little of him to say definitely whether he wrote the Odes or not. His Alexandrian extraction would rather speak in his favor, for his reliance on Philo1 and Wisdom and the Hermetic literature has already been noted. His career also, as far as we know it, begins and ends at Ephesus, and he is of the right date. It is remarkable that B. W. Bacon has traced his influence in the thought of the Fourth Gospel: "We have no means of proving," says he, "that Apollos ever touched pen to paper; yet it is permissible to say that if any identifiable spirit speaks through the Fourth Gospel besides that of Paul it is such a spirit as that of Apollos.'57 It is just possible that the trope in Paul's phrase "Apollos watered” (έлótɩoɛ, I Cor. iii. 6) was suggested to him by that missionary's

156 "The Odes and Philo,” J. T. Marshall, Expositor, 1911, I, 385ff, 519f. 157 The Fourth Gospel in Research and Debate, 1909, p. 283.

addiction to the said element, but no safe inference as to his authorship can be drawn from that. If Apollos was a Jew by birth, and the author of the Odes a Gentile, they could not have been the same person, but neither of these suppositions is beyond doubt. Perhaps the weightiest argument against Apollos's authorship is that we have no clearer indication in favor of it.

POUGHKEEPSIE, N. Y.

PRESERVED SMITH.

ON THE METHODS OF THEORETICAL PHYSICS.

[A lecture of Boltzmann's on "The Recent Development of Method in Theoretical Physics" was translated in The Monist for January, 1901 (Vol. XI, pp. 226-257). But this earlier lecture should be read in connection with it. An exhibition of models, apparatus, and instruments used for the purpose of mathematics and mathematical physics was planned by the German society of mathematicians (Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung) for the meeting at Nuremburg in 1892. Such an exhibition had been held-on a larger scalein London in 1876, and since then the question of models had increased very greatly in practical, theoretical and pedagogical importance. At the last moment the planned exhibition was postponed till September, 1893, when it was held at Munich. Among the eight essays written for and published in the catalogue of this exhibition,' issued in 1892, was one by Boltzmann "Ueber die Methoden der theoretischen Physik" which is here translated. An English version was communicated by the Physical Society to the Philosophical Magazine, and it is this translation which has served as a basis for the present one. For permission to make use of it I am indebted to the publishers of the Philosophical Magazine. The omissions and errors in the translation have been rectified with the help of the original German. I have also verified and completed the references. The additions made in the translation in the Philosophical Magazine are given in the Supplementary Note following the essay itself.-P. E. B. JOURDAIN.]

CAL

ALLED upon by the editors of the Katalog to deal with this subject, I soon became aware that little that is new could be said, so much and such sterling matter having in recent times been written about it. An almost exaggerated criticism of the methods of scientific investigation is indeed a characteristic of the present day; an intensified "critique of pure reason" we might say, if this expression were not perhaps somewhat too presumptuous. It is not my object again to criticize this criticism. I will only offer a few guiding remarks for those who, without being

1 Katalog mathematischer und mathematisch-physikalischer Modelle, Apparate und Instrumente, edited by Walther Dyck, Munich, 1892; Nachtrag, Munich, 1893. This essay was reprinted in Boltzmann's Populäre Schriften, Leipsic, 1905, pp. 1-10.

Katalog, 1892, pp. 89-98.

'Phil. Mag., 5th series, Vol. XXXVI, 1893, pp. 37-44.