College buildings. Andrew joined the business; and they printed a series of classical books in a style far superior to any before executed in Scotland. They were not only the foremost printers of their day, but they also did much to promote the culture of painting and art.

In 1780, there were twenty-seven printing offices in Edinburgh. Although stereotyping was invented early in the eighteenth century, by William Ged, a goldsmith in Edinburgh, and practised by him in 1730, it was long before this art was brought into use in printing establishments. In the present century the process has been brought to great perfection, and has for many years been universally practised. In short, it may be truly said that the great development of the modern newspaper press, and the incessantly increasing necessity for expeditious work, has tended greatly to the invention of new machinery, and the improvement of the whole apparatus and appliances now in operation in large printing establishments.

It was in connection with newspapers that the printing machines were first actually worked, and steam power applied to printing. After a long series of trials and experiments, and the exercise of much ingenuity, the printing machines were brought to a high degree of efficiency. They began to be used in Britain in the first quarter of this century, and were perfected by degrees. The London Times was first printed by a machine on the 28th of November, 1814. There are now various kinds of machines used for printing newspapers from stereotyped plates placed on revolving cylinders, which can print many thousands of copies per hour. The "Victory" printing machine, used in many large newspaper establishments, is an admirably perfect piece of mechanism. This machine, on being set in motion, feeds itself from a large roll of paper, and throws off the printed copies at a surprisingly rapid rate, neatly folded and ready to be despatched.

The stereotyping process itself has been much improved and perfected during the past forty years. Indeed, it has become so indispensable that the daily newspapers circulated throughout the country could not be produced without its aid. In short, there has been a complete revolution in the modes of printing within the past hundred years.

In all the large printing establishments in Scotland machinery and steam-power are employed. Many kinds of printing machines are now used, each specially adapted for different kinds and classes of

work. In some establishments all kinds of printing is executed 1; others limit themselves chiefly to special lines, such as book-printing; while some carry on both printing and lithography; most of the book-printing firms execute stereotyping. Edinburgh is the chief centre of the book-printing trade in Scotland, though this branch is carried on more or less in all the chief towns of the country.

A large quantity of excellent printing is annually executed in Scotland. In illustrated works ample scope is afforded for the display of taste and artistic skill, and good specimens of this branch of work have been produced in this country.

According to the census of 1871, there were 5609 printers in Scotland. But including all the branches of business directly connected with the printing trade, there were upwards of 16,000 persons employed. In 1891, 12,329 persons were so employed.

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In the bookbinding trade machines are used for performing a great number of operations. Many attempts have been made to supersede hand-labour in folding by machines, and in the common kinds of work such machines are used. In every large bookbinding establishment the division of labour is carried out to the minutest particular for instance, the case-makers are divided into six or eight sections, each performing a special part of the work, and before a book is bound it passes through eighteen or twenty different hands. This department of work also affords considerable scope for the exercise of taste and skill in selecting the various colours of cloth, forming devices for the boards, and details of ornamental work. The styles of binding are endless, and many beautiful specimens are produced in Scotland. In 1871, there were 3113 persons employed in this branch of industry, of whom 1820 were females. In 1891, there were 4,405 hands employed in it, of whom 2,888 were females.

SECTION IX.

Leather, India-Rubber, and Shoe Manufactures.

In a preceding volume the tanning of leather was noticed, and the shoemaking trade was frequently mentioned; 36 but the manufactures in india-rubber are a more modern development, nevertheless, it seems requisite to give some account of them.

36 Mackintosh's History of Civilisation in Scotland, Vol. I., pp. 241, 400, Vol. II., p. 293; Vol. III., pp. 287, 305.

The manufacture of leather was long subjected to a duty, which was finally repealed in 1830. In the latter half of the last century there was a considerable leather trade in Scotland; and until about twenty-five years ago the manufacture of leather was increasing, but since the trade has not been so prosperous. The best and most durable kinds of boot and shoe leather were not at any time produced in Scotland; the quality of this class of Scotch leather is inferior to both the English and the French. In 1871, there were about 120 tanneries; and at this time there were 2739 persons employed in connection with the leather manufacture in Scotland. In 1891, about 3000 hands were employed in it.

Within a period of forty years the boot and shoe making trade has undergone a complete revolution; before 1859, boots and shoes were made by the hand, and with few exceptions they were all sewed. But since then machinery has been largely applied to the manufacture of boots and shoes, and sewing by the hand has been almost superseded by riveting machines and sewing machines. One result of the application of machinery has been the establishment of large manufactories of boots and shoes. One of these in Glasgow, in 1870, employed 2000 hands; and in other large towns many shoe factories have been started within the last twenty-five years. The articles produced in these factories are much inferior, both in quality of material and in workmanship, to those which were formerly made by the hand; but the factory article has the recommendation of cheapness, and this is what the majority of dealers and customers are always in quest of.

Gutta-percha in its raw state is a substance extracted from certain trees which grow in Asia, and the manufacture of it in this country is of recent date. From about 1858 onward, it was largely used in making boots and shoes in Scotland: the soles were of gutta-percha and the uppers of leather. It has been applied to many other purposes; and as a non-conductor of electricity it has become an invaluable aid in constructing the submarine telegraph.

In 1871, the number of persons employed in making boots and shoes was 37,587, and of this number 13,426 were females, but 12,207 of the latter were shoemakers' wives who worked at the trade.

The manufactures in india-rubber are of comparatively recent origin, and up till about 1820, it was only used for rubbing out pencil marks. The raw material of caoutchouc, or india-rubber, is a resinous substance, which exudes by incisions from trees that grow in Brazil,

in Cayenne, and Quito; and it was first brought to Europe (France) about the year 1734. The first notice of it in Britain occurs in a publication of Dr. Priestley's in 1770. In 1819, Mr. Hancock began his experiments on india-rubber, and the following year he obtained a patent for india-rubber braces, garters, bands, etc. He continued his operations, and before 1847, he had obtained fourteen patents for his special india-rubber goods.

In 1820, Mr. Macintosh, of Glasgow, began to make experiments with india-rubber; and in 1823, he established a work in Glasgow. for waterproof articles. In 1824, he took out a patent for waterproofing cloth, which was afterwards distinguished by his name. This cloth was made by cementing two folds together by the solution, and coats made of it soon became well known. He formed a partnership in Manchester, and commenced to manufacture waterproof goods on a large scale, and the firm became widely known. Mr. Hancock had worked some of his inventions in connection with Mr. Macintosh, and finally entered the firm, which then assumed the title of Messrs. Hancock & Macintosh.

After the manufacture of useful india-rubber goods was demonstrated by the efforts, talents, and enterprise of the two gentlemen mentioned above, there was a wild rush of attempts at india-rubber manufactures. "Mechanicians hailed the rubber as a sort of missing link in their code of materials for machine making; and such was the rage for introducing it, that it was frequently found in most unsuitable positions." It is now used in connection with many machines; indeed, the purposes to which it is applied, as well as the different kinds of goods and articles manufactured from it, are exceedingly numerous and varied, and a complete detail of them would be out of the question-only a few can be mentioned.

Boots and shoes of all sizes have long been manufactured from india-rubber. One of the earliest specimens of this class of goods was known under the name of "goloshes," which were worn as overshoes, and were in great vogue thirty years ago. About that time there was an india-rubber manufactory in Edinburgh which could turn out 7000 pairs of boots and shoes a-day, or over 2,000,000 pairs a-year.46 Coats, leggings, cushions, bags, and so on were at the same period produced in endless variety. A little later, combs, jewellery, and a long series of miscellaneous articles were produced from india-rubber.

46 In recent years this class of boots and shoes have fallen out of fashion.

The vulcanite and black jet jewellery was popular twenty years ago, and immense quantities of it were produced. At present a large business is done in india-rubber and vulcanised goods in Scotland.

SECTION X.

Sugar Refining, Brewing, and Distilling.

I. Sugar works were established in Scotland in 1667.37 In 1715, the sugar-refining trade was carried on in Glasgow and Leith; and at this date it was put under the English excise laws. Before the end of the eighteenth century Greenock had become the chief seat of the sugar-refining trade in Scotland. The first sugar refinery in Greenock was commenced in 1765, by a company of West Indian merchants; this refinery was in operation in 1870. The second refinery in the town was begun in 1787; it started with two pans, but the number was subsequently increased. The third sugar refinery was built in 1800; the fourth was erected in 1809; the fifth in 1812; and the sixth im 1826. The sugar refining trade continued to increase in Greenock, and more refineries were erected. In 1869, there were fourteen sugar refineries in this enterprising town; and two of the largest of these turned out about 14,000 tons of sugar a week.

In 1869, there were twenty sugar refineries in Scotland, eighteen of which were on the Clyde and two at Leith. It thus appears that nearly all the sugar refining in Scotland was centred on the Clyde. A large amount of shipping was employed in the sugar trade. In 1868, 416 vessels arrived in the Clyde, of about 140,000 tons, and 400 of these discharged their cargoes at Greenock. The raw sugar imported into the Clyde in 1858 was 56,769 tons, and 15,000 tons of molasses; in 1861, the raw sugar imported was 88,694 tons, and molasses 18,229 tons; and in 1867, the sugar was 178,000 tons, and 2900 tons of molasses. But, since the duty on sugar was abolished, the annual consumption has increased; a larger quantity of it is used in making preserved fruits of every kind.

In the sugar-refining process very heavy machinery and costly appliances are required, such as blowing-up machinery, filtering apparatus, vacuum pans and vacuum pumps, heaters and stirring

37 Mackintosh's History of Civilisation, Vol. III., p. 330.