the homage which is due to them; gods being to be preferred in honour to demi-gods or dæmons, and dæmons to heroes or men. These three orders, in the Pathagorean system, were emanations, at different degrees of proximity, from the supreme intelligence, the particles of subtle æther assuming a grosser clothing the farther they receded from the fountain. The third order, or heroes, were supposed to be invested with a subtle material clothing. Hierocles defines a hero to be, a rational mind united with a luminous body. If to these three species we add a fourth, the human mind, we have the whole scale of divine emanation, as it was conceived to be by this sect of philosophers. All these they imagined to proceed from God, as the first source of intelligence, and to have received from him a pure, simple, immutable nature. God being himself one, and the origin of all diversity, they represented him under the notion of monad, and subordinate intelligences, as numbers derived and included in unity. Thus the numbers or derived intelligences of Pythagoras agree with the ideas of Plato, except, perhaps, that the latter were of a nature perfectly spiritual, but the former were clothed with a subtle ætherial body. The region of the air was supposed by the Pythagoreans to be full of spirits, dæmons, or heroes, who cause sickness or health to man or beast, and communicate, at their pleasure, by means of dreams, and other instruments of divination, the knowledge of future events. That Pythagoras himself held this opinion cannot be doubted, if it be true, as his biographers relate, that he professed to cure diseases by incantations. It is ́probable that he derived it from the Egyptians, among whom it was believed that many diseases were caused by dæmoniacal possessions.

The MATERIAL WORLD, according to Pythagoras, was produced by the energy of the divine intelligence. It is an animated sphere, beyond which is a perfect vacuum. It contains spheres which revolve with musical harmony. The atmosphere of the earth is a gross, immutable, and morbid mass; but the air, or æther, which surrounds it is pure, healthful, serene, perpetually moving, the region of all divine and immortal natures. The sun, moon, and stars, are inhabited by portions of the divinity, or gods. The sun is a spherical body. Its eclipses are caused by the passing of the moon between it and the earth; those of the moon by the intervention of the antichthon before explained. The moon is inhabited by dæmons. Comets are stars, which Comets are stars, which are not always seen, but rise at stated periods.

Concerning MAN, the Pythagoreans taught, that, consisting of an elementary nature, and a divine or rational principle, he is a microcosm, or compendium of the universe; that his soul is a self-moving principle, composed of two parts, the rational, which is a portion of the soul of the world, seated in the brain, and the irrational, which includes the passions, and is seated in the heart; that man participates in both these with the brutes, which from the temperament of their body, and their want of the power of speech, are incapable of acting rationally; that the sensitive soul, Quμos, perishes, but the rational mind, pen, is immortal, because the source whence it is derived is immortal; that after the rational mind is freed from the chains of the body, it assumes an ætherial vehicle, and passes into the regions of the dead, where it remains till it is sent back to this world, to be the inhabitant of some other body, brutal or human; that after suffering successive purgations, when it is sufficiently purified, it is received among the gods, and returns to the eternal source from which it first proceeded. The doctrine of the Pythagoreans respecting the nature of brute animals, and μετεμψύχωσις, the TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS, was the foundation of their abstinence from animal food, and of their exclusion of animal sacrifices from their religious ceremonies. This doctrine Pythagoras probably learned in Egypt, where it was commonly taught; nor is there any sufficient reason for understanding it, as some have done, symbollically.

We must not take our leave of Pythagoras, without adding a few specimens of his SYMBOLS, which though they were at first made use of for the purpose of concealment, and though their meaning has always been kept secret by the Pythagoreans themselves, have awakened much curiosity, and given occasion to many ingenious conjectures, which, however, unless they were more satisfactory, it would answer no purpose to repeat. Among the symbols of Pythagoras, recited by Jamblicus and others, are the following: adore the sound of the whispering wind. Stir not the fire with a sword. Turn aside from an edged tool. Pass not over a balance. Setting out on a journey, turn not back, for the furies will return with you. Breed nothing that hath crooked talons. Receive not a swallow into your house. Look not in a mirror by the light of a candle. At a sacrifice, pare not your nails. Eat not the heart, or brain. Taste not that which hath fallen from the table. Break not bread. Sleep not at noon. When it thunders touch the earth. Pluck not a crown. Roast not that

which has been boiled. Sail not on the ground. Plant not a palm. Breed a cock, but do not sacrifice it, for it is sacred to the sun and moon. Plant mallows in thy garden, but eat them not. Abstain from beans. The precept prohibiting the use of beans, is one of the mysteries which the ancient Pythagoreans never disclosed, and which modern ingenuity has in vain attempted to discover. Its meaning was probably rather dietetic, than physical, or moral. But enough of these enigmatical trifles. Pythagorean precepts of more value are such as these discourse not of Pythagorean doctrines without light. Above all things govern your tongue. Engrave not the image of God in a ring. Quit not your station without the command of your general. Remember that the paths of virtue and vice resemble the letter Y. To this symbol Persius refers, when he says, (Sat. iii. 56.)

Et tibi quæ Samios deduxit Litera Ramos, Sargentem dextro monstravit Limite collem. "There has the Samian Y's instructive make, Pointed the road thy doubtful foot should take; There warn'd thy raw and yet unpractis'd youth, To tread the rising right-hand path of truth." Diogen. Laert. lib. viii. cap. i. Jamblichi et Porphyrii Vit. Pythag. passim. Suidas. Stanley's Hist. Phil. part ix. Enfield's Hist. Phil. Vol. I. ch. xii.-M.

PYTHEAS, an ancient mathematician, astronomer, and geographer, was a native of the Greek colony of Marseilles in Gaul, and flourished in the time of Aristotle and Alexander the Great. He contributed to the improvement of geographical and astronomical science, by accounts which he wrote of his travels and voyages, and other works. The ancient Greek scholiast upon Apollonius (Lib. iv.) attributes to him a book, entitled yns Tegiod, or "The Circuit of the Earth." In the abridgment of Artemidorus the Ephesian, printed with the ancient geographers, he is placed in the number of those who have written a " Periplus of the World." Geminus of Rhodes, who lived in the time of Cicero, quoted a treatise of his "De Oceano." None of these pieces, however, have reached modern times, though some of them were extant in the fourth century. From fragments which may be collected out of Strabo, it appears that Pytheas introduced into them a number of marvellous and incredible circumstances, chiefly related on the testimony of others, which drew on him the severe censures of that author and Polybius. By these fables they were so prejudiced against him, that they withheld their credit from nearly the whole of

what he had written; and Polybius, in par ticular, as we learn from Strabo, maintained it to be utterly incredible that a private person, who was even in want, should have travelled so far as he pretended to have done, by sea and land. We have reason to conclude, however, from the agreement of many of his statements with the observations of modern geographers and astronomers, that he actually visited all the countries of Europe which are situated upon the ocean, discovered the island of Thule, or Iceland, and penetrated into the Baltic as far as the mouth of a large river which he called the Tanais, and is supposed to have been the Vistula. This has been satisfactorily shewn by Gassendi, in the vindication of Pytheas which he wrote at the request of his friend' M. de Pieresc; in which he shews, that Pytheas was well acquainted with the northern countries, and accurately marked the distinction of climates, by the difference which he observed in the length of the days and nights in different latitudes. He also shews, that Eratheir geographical works by availing themselves tosthenes and Hipparchus greatly improved of the labours of Pytheas, though not without due acknowledgments of their obligations. That Pytheas was a skilful observer of the heavens, appears from his having taught that there is no star in the precise situation of the pole; and he rendered himself famous among astronomers, by being the first calculator of the meridian altitude of the sun at the summer solstice at Marseilles. This he ascertained. by erecting a gnomon, or upright pillar, of a given heighth, and finding the proportion between that heighth and the length of the meridian shadow. The result was found to correspond exactly with that of an observation made by Gassendi at the same place, in the year 1636. In order to obviate such objections as that advanced by Polybius against the reality of Pytheas's voyages and travels, we may reasonably admit the supposition that he was furnished with the means of prosecuting them at the public expence. For, as the republic of Marseilles was then powerful at sea, largely engaged in commercial pursuits, and sent Euthymenes to make such discoveries in the southern parts of the world as might lead to the extension of its trade, it seems very probable that Pytheas was dispatched on the public account into the northern regions, with the same views. Strabon. Geog. lib. ii. iv. passim. Vossii de Hist. Græc. lib. i. cap. xvii. Gassendi Oper. Vol. IV. epist. ii. ad. Windelin. Bayle. Nouv. Dict. Hist. - M.

1675, 4to.; "De sacra Scriptura, ejusque Attributis et Scopo præcipuo," &c. 4to.; "Exercitationes Theologica," 4to.; "Dialogus de patriis illustrium Doctrina et Scriptis virorum, ab initio Mundi ad An. 1600," 1654, 4to.; "De Sepultura Veterum, sive Tractatus de antiquis Ritibus Sepulcralibus Græcorum, Romanorum, Judæorum, et Christianorum," 1648, 4to.; "De Primitiis et Decimis Hebræorum," 1685, 8vo.; " Antiquitates Biblicæ et Ecclesiasticæ," &c. 1688, 4to.; and various "Dissertations," "Disputations," &c., the subjects of which may be seen in Le Long's Bibl. Sacra, Vol. II. Moreri.-M.

QUERENGHI, ANTONIO, an Italian man of letters, was born at Padua in 1546. He displayed at an early age such a disposition for literature, that he wrote verses at twelve which were admired, and distinguished himself by his knowledge of the languages, civil laws, and philosophy, soon after he had passed his fifteenth year. He afterwards applied himself to theology, in which he was regarded as a great proficient. By the advice of SperonSperoni, who had been his preceptor, he repaired to Rome, where he entered into the service of various cardinals, and became an active member of the academy degli Animosi. He was at length made secretary of the sacred college, in which capacity he was present at the election of five popes. Clement VIII. conferred upon him a canonry of Padua, which occasioned him to reside for some time in that city, where he was of great use to the newly founded academy degli Ricovrati. He returned to Rome in the pontificate of Paul V., by whom he was made private chamberlain and referendary of both signatures. He held these offices under the two succeeding popes; and though he was solicited by Duke Rannucio Farnese to go to Parma and write the history of his father Alexander, and had besides an invitation from Henry IV. of France, he chose to remain at Rome. He died in that city, full of years and honours, in 1633, at the age of 87. Querenghi was a man of various and extensive literature, and was much regarded by the learned and ingenious of his time. His writings were numerous, and comprehended the sciences, philology, oratory, and poetry, both Latin and Italian. It was by his poems that he became principally known to posterity, which are elegant and correct, but not remarkably animated. They have been characterised as having nothing to censure, much to praise, but little to admire. Baillet. Tirabo.chi. Moreri.-A. QUESNAY, FRANCIS, a physician and phi

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losopher, distinguished by his writings, was born in 1694, of poor and rustic parents at Merey, a village of the Isle of France. passed his youth in rural labours till the age of 16, at which he first learned to read. By the assistance of a country surgeon, and his own exertions, he obtained some knowledge of Greek and Latin, and of the principles of medicine. He then went to Paris for improvement, and being lodged at the house of an engraver, he learned drawing and engraving, which arts he afterwards found useful in his anatomical enquiries. Being admitted a mastersurgeon, he settled at Mantes, where for some years he practised in his profession, employing all his leisure in reading and meditation. He first became known to the public by a criticism on Sylva's treatise on blood-letting, with a theory of his own on the same subject. This was favourably received, and procured him the esteem of la Peyronie, who was then engaged in the establishment of the Academy of Surgery. By his interest, Quesnay was appointed secretary to the new academy, and in consequence removed to Paris. The gout rendering him. unfit for the practice of surgery, he entered into the medical department of the profession, and took the degree of doctor at Pont-aMousson. He was nominated consulting physician to the King, and obtained credit at court, especially during the reign of Mad. de Pompadour. He was ennobled, and finally became first physician in ordinary to His Majesty. During this course of elevation he preserved much of the frankness and simplicity of his early life, together with great humanity, patriotism, and disinterestedness. He was distinguished not only by his medical writings, but by several works upon political economy, which caused him to be regarded as the patriarch of the sect of economists. The importance he attached to this study, and his own reputation in it, are displayed in the following anecdote. Entering once into the closet of the Dauphin, who had a great esteem for him, that prince said, " M. Quesnay, we were trespassing upon your ground; we were talking on economy." "Sir, (he replied) you were in your own garden, for it is there that the lilies grow." Several repartees attributed to him shew that he mixed shrewdness and sagacity with his simplicity. A physician, who in an important consultation had carried a point of practice after much opposition, called upon Quesnay, and stating the case, desired to know his opinion of the matter. As in his own mind he did not agree with the