of its Transactions, containing many ingenious papers on general literature and the sciences, as well as respecting those subjects peculiar to America. It is a delightful prospect to the philosopher to consider that Asia, Europe, and America, though far separated, and divided into a variety of political states, are all three combined to promote the cause of knowledge and truth.

A Literary and Philosophical Society, of considerable reputation, has long been established at Manchester, under the direction of two presidents, four vice-presidents, and two secretaries. The number of members is limited to fifty; besides whom there are several honorary members, all of whom are elected by ballot; and the officers are chosen annually in April. Numerous volumes of valuable essays have been already published by this society, and often quoted in

our work.

The Society of Antiquaries of London was founded about the year 1572 by archbishop Parker, a munificent patron of learned men. For the space of twenty years it assembled in the house of Sir Robert Cotton; in 1589 they resolved to apply to queen Elizabeth for a charter and, a public building where they might hold their meetings; but it is uncertain whether any such application was ever made. In the mean time the reputation of the society gradually increased, and at length it excited the jealousy of James I., who was afraid lest it should presume to canvas the secret transactions of his government. He accordingly dissolved it. But in 1717 the Antiquarian Society began to revive; and a number of gentlemen, eminent for their attachment to this science, had weekly meetings, in which they examined the antiquities and his tory of Great Britain preceding the reign of James I., but without excluding any other remarkable antiquities that might be offered to them. From this time the society grew in importance; and in 1750 they unanimously resolved to petition the king for a charter of incorporation. This they obtained, in 1751, by the influence of the celebrated earl of Hardwicke, then lord chancellor, and Martin Folkes, esq., who was then their president. The king declared himself their founder and patron, and empowered them to have a body of statutes, and a common seal, and to hold in perpetuity lands, &c., to the yearly value of £1000.

The chief object of the enquiries and researches of this society are British antiquities and history; not, however, wholly excluding those of other countries. The study of antiquity offers to the curious and inquisitive a large field for research and amusement. The enquirer in this branch furnishes the historian with his best materials, while he distinguishes from truth the fictions of a bold invention, and ascertains the credibility of facts; and to the philosopher he presents a fruitful source of ingenious speculation, while he points out to him the way of thinking, and the manners of men, under all the varieties of aspect in which they have appeared. The Horticultural Society of London was instituted in 1804, under a president, a council, three treasurers, and secretary. It has of late

greatly extended its operations, and engaged and planted handsome grounds at Chiswick.

Besides these literary societies here mentioned, there are a great number more in different parts of Europe, some of which are noticed in our article ACADEMY. Those which are omitted are not omitted on account of any idea of their inferior importance; but either because we have had no access to authentic information, or because they resemble the societies, already described, so closely, that we could have given nothing but their names.

SECT. III.-SOCIETIES FOR ENCOURAGING AND PROMOTING ARTS, MANUFACTURES, &c.

The London Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, was instituted, in 1754, by lord Folkstone, lord Romney, Dr. Stephen Hales, and a few private gentlemen; but the merit of this institution chiefly belonged to Mr. William Shipley, an ingenious mechanic; who, though deriving no advantages from learning, by unwearied personal attendance found means to engage a few persons of rank and fortune to meet at Peel's coffee-house in Fleet Street, and to adopt a plan for promoting arts and manufactures.

The office-bearers of this society are a president, twelve vice-presidents, a secretary, and registrar. Their proceedings are regulated by rules and orders established by the whole society, and printed for the use of the members. All questions are determined by show of hands, or by ballot; and no matter can be confirmed without the assent of a majority at two meetings. They invite all the world to propose subjects for encouragement; and whatever is deemed deserving attention is referred to a committee, who, after due enquiry and deliberation, make their report to the whole society, where it is approved, rejected, or altered. A list is published every year of the matters for which they propose to give premiums; which are either sums of money, and those sometimes very considerable, or the society's medal in gold or silver, which they consider as the greatest honor they can bestow. All possible care is taken to prevent partiality in the distribution of their premiums, by appointing committees (who when they find occasion call to their assistance the most skilful artists) for the strict examination of the real merit of all matters brought before them.

The chief objects of the attention of this society in the application of their rewards are ingenuity in the arts, useful discoveries and improvements in agriculture, manufactures, mechanics, and chemistry, or the laying open of any such to the public; and, in general, all such useful inventions, discoveries, or improvements, as may tend to the advantage of trade and commerce.

It is required that the matters for which premiums are offered be delivered in without names, or any intimation to whom they belong; that each particular thing be marked in what manner each claimant thinks fit, such claimant sending with it a paper sealed up, having on the outside a corresponding mark, and on the inside the claimant's name and address. No papers shall

be opened but such as shall gain premiums; all the rest shall be returned unopened, with the matters to which they belong, if enquired after by the marks within two years; after which time, if not demanded, they shall be publicly burnt, unopened, at some meeting of the society. All the premiums of this society are designed for that part of Great Britain called England, Wales, and Berwick upon Tweed. No person shall receive any premium, bounty, or encouragement, from the society for any matter for which he has obtained or proposes to obtain a patent. No member of this society shall be a candidate for, or entitled to receive, any premium, bounty, or reward whatsoever, except the honorary medal.

The respectability of the members who compose it may be seen by perusing the list which accompanies their Transactions. In vol. xii. it occupies no less than forty-three pages. Some idea may be formed of the wealth of this society, by observing that the list of their premiums fills ninety-six pages, and amounts to 250 in number. These consist of gold medals worth from thirty to fifty, and in a few instances to 100 guineas; and silver medals valued at ten guineas.

This society is one of the most important in Great Britain. Much money has been expended by it, and many are the valuable effects of which it has been productive. Among these we reckon not only the discoveries which it has excited, but the institution of other societies on the same principles to which it has given birth; and future ages will consider the founding of this society as one of the most remarkable epochs in the history of the arts.

The Society at Bath for the encouragement of Agriculture, Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, was founded in 1777 by several gentlemen who met at the city of Bath. This scheme met with a very favorable reception both from the wealthy and learned. The wealthy subscribed very liberally, and the learned communicated many important papers. On application to the London and provincial societies, instituted for the like purposes, they very politely offered their assistance. Seven volumes of their Transactions have already been published, containing very valuable experiments and observations, particularly respecting agriculture, which well deserves the attention of all farmers in the kingdom. We have frequently referred to them in the course of

this work.

Society for Working Mines is an association formed not many years ago on the continent of Europe. This institution arose from the accidental meeting of several mineralogists at Skleno near Schemnitz, in Hungary, who met to examine a new method of amalgamation. Struck with the shackles imposed on mineralogy by monopolizers of new and useful processes, they thought no method so effectual to break them, as forming a society, whose common labors should be directed to fix mining on its surest principles; and whose memoirs, spread over all Europe, might offer to every adventurer the result of the researches of which they are the object. By these means there would be a mass of information collected; the interests of individuals

would be lost in the general interest; and the one would materially assist the other.

The object of the society is physical geography; mineralogy founded on chemistry; the management of ores; subterraneous geometry; the history of mining; foundries, and the processes for the extraction of metals from the ores, either by fusion or amalgamation, in every instance applied to practice. The end of this institution is to collect every thing than can assist the operations of the miner, and to communicate it to the different members, that they may employ it for the public good, in their respective countries. Each member pays annually two ducats (about 18s. 6d.) to the direction every Easter. The society is bound to publish every novelty that shall be communicated to it; to communicate to each member the memoirs, designs, models, productions, and every thing connected with the institution; to answer all the necessary demands made, relating in any respect to mining; and to give its opinion on every plan or project communicated through the medium of an honorary member. The great centre of intelligence is at Zellerfield in Hartz, Brunswick; but the society is not fixed to any one spot; for in every particular state some practical mineralogist is nominated as director. Among these have appeared the names of baron Born, M. Pallas, M. Carpentier, M. Prebra, and M. Henkel. Their office is to propose the members; to take care that the views of the society are followed out; to answer the requests of the members; in case of the death of a director, to choose another; and to determine where the archives and the strong box is to be placed. Most of the eminent mineralogists in Europe have been members of this society. It is erected on the most liberal and extensive plan.

The Society for the Improvement of Naval Architecture was founded in 1791. The object of it is to encourage every useful invention and discovery relating to naval architecture, both by honorary and pecuniary rewards.To improve the theory of floating bodies and of the resistance of fluids; to procure draughts and models of different vessels, with calculations of their capacity, centre of gravity, tonnage, &c.; to make observations and experiments, and to point out such as appear best calculated to further their designs; in a word to cultivate whatever may tend to render navigation more safe, salutary, and even pleasant.

This institution owes its existence to the patriotic disposition and extraordinary attention of Mr. Sewel a citizen of London, who has been led to take such particular notice of the state of naval architecture in this country. His attention was the more seriously excited, by finding that it was the opinion of some private ship-builders, who, in a debate on the failure of one of our naval engagements, pronounced that, such 'would ever be the case, while the construction of our ships of war was not studied as a science, but carried on merely by precedent; that there had not been one improvement in our navy that did not originate with the French, who had naval schools, and seminaries for the study of it; and that our ships were not a match for those of that

nation either singly or in a fleet,' &c. In a short time the society were enabled to offer very considerable premiums for particular improvements in the construction of our shipping, &c., and also to encourage our philosophers, mathematicians, and mechanics, to make satisfactory experiments, tending to ascertain the laws of resistance of water to solids of different forms, in all varieties of circumstances. Their highest reward is £100 or a gold medal. Other premiums of fifty, thirty, and twenty guineas, according to the importance or difficulty of the particular subject or point of investigation, are likewise offered, for different discoveries, inventions, or improvements. The terms of admission into the society are a subscription of two guineas annually, or twenty guineas for life.

The Society of Artists of Great Britain, which consists of directors and fellows, was incorporated by charter in 1765, and empowered to purchase and hold lands, not exceeding £1000 a year. The directors of this society, annually elected, consist of twenty-four persons, including the president, vice-president, treasurer and secretary; and it is required that they be either painters, sculptors, architects, or engravers by profession. The British Society for extending the Fisheries and Improving the Sea Coasts of this Kingdom, was instituted in 1786. The design of this society will best appear from their charter, of which we subjoin an abstract. The preamble states, 'the great want of improvement in fisheries, agriculture, and manufactures, in the Highlands and Islands of North Britain; the prevalence of emigration from the want of employment in those parts; the prospect of a new nursery of seamen, by the establishment of fishing towns and villages in that quarter. The act therefore declares that the persons therein named, and all other persons who shall thereafter become proprietors of the joint stock mentioned therein, shall be a distinct and separate body politic and corporate, by the name above quoted. That the said society may raise a capital joint stock not exceeding £150,000 to be applied to purchasing lands and tenements to perpetuity, for the building thereon free towns, villages, and fishing stations; that the joint stock shall be divided into shares of £50 each that no one person shall in his or her name possess more than ten shares, or £500: That the society shall not borrow money: That the sums to be advanced, and the profits arising therefrom, shall be divided proportionably to the sum subscribed and that no person shall be liable for a larger sum than he or she shall have respectively subscribed That one or two shares shall entitle to one vote and no more, in person or by proxy, at all meetings of proprietors; three or four shares to two votes; five, six, or seven shares to three votes; eight or nine shares to four votes; and ten shares to five votes and no more: That more persons than one inclining to hold in their joint names one or more shares shall be entitled to vote, by one of such persons, according to the priority of their names, or by proxy: That bodies corporate shall vote by proxy under their seal: That all persons holding proxies shall be proprietors, and that no person shall hold more than five votes by proxy: that the affairs of the

society shall be managed by a governor, deputygovernor, and thirteen other directors, to be elected annually on the 25th of March, from the proprietors, holding at least one full share, by signed lists of their names to be transmitted to the secretary: That five proprietors, not being governor, director, or other officer, shall be in like manner annually elected to audit the accounts of the society: That there shall be one general meeting of the proprietors annually on the 25th of March: That occasional general meetings shall be called on the request of nine or more proprietors: That the general meetings of the proprietors shall make all bye-laws and constitutions for the government of the society, and for the orderly carrying on of its business: That the cash of the society shall be lodged in the bank of England, bank of Scotland, or the royal bank of Scotland: That no director, proprietor, agent, or officer of the society, shall retain any sum or sums of money in his hands beyond the space of thirty days: That all payments shall be made by draughts on the said banks, under the hands of the governor or deputy-governor, countersigned by the secretary or his deputy, and two or more directors: And that the books in which the accounts of the society shall be kept shall be open to all the proprietors.' The institution of this public spirited society was in a great measure owing to the exertions of the patriotic John Knox; who, in the course of twenty-three years, traversed and explored the Highlands of Scotland no less than sixteen times, and spent several thousand pounds of his own fortune in pursuing his patriotic designs.

The Society of Civil Engineers of London.This society took its rise from the following circumstances:-Before or about the year 1760 a new era in all the arts and sciences commenced in this country. Every thing which contributes to the comfort, the beauty, and the prosperity of a country, moved forward in improvement, so rapidly and so obviously, as to mark that period with particular distinction. It was about this time that manufactures were extended on a new plan, by the enterprize, the capital, and, above all, by the science of the men of deep knowledge and persevering industry engaged in them. It was seen that it would be better for establishments to be placed in new situations, adapted to the obtaining raw materials, and the labor of patient and retired industry, than to endure the vexations that perpetually occur in corporate towns, and the wages of their extravagant workmen. This produced a new demand, not thought of till that period, in this country,-internal navigation. To make communications from factory to factory, and from warehouses to harbours, as well as to carry raw materials to and from such establishments, became absolutely necessary. Hence arose those works of real utility which have been carried on to a degree of extent and magnitude to which as yet. there is no appearance of limitation. The ancient harbours of this island, it may be said, have ever been an example in the history of mankind. The sea-ports were such as nature had formed, and were but little better, notwithstanding some jettees and piers of defence, which had been

made and altered, without knowledge or judgment, at municipal expense. This general situation of things gave rise to a new profession and order of men, denominated civil engi

neers.'

The celebrated Mr. Smeaton first proposed this society for the advancement of the science of civil engineering, and in March 1771 it was established, and the members met on Friday evenings, at the Queen's Head Tavern, Holborn. It did not increase rapidly; for in twenty years the numbers were less than seventy, and of these, there were only about fifteen who were real engineers, employed in public works, or private undertakings of great magnitude. The other members were either amateurs, or ingenious workmen and artificers connected with, and employed in, works of engineering. A register was kept of the names of its members; and a communication of ideas and knowledge, in the particular walks of each member, were, at the same time, the amusement and the business of the meetings. In this manner the society proceeded till 1792, when it ceased to exist, by mutual consent of the principal members. Its dissolution was occasioned by the ill treatment which Mr. Smeaton experienced from one of the members.

In April, 1793, a new society was, however, formed under the denomination of 'The Society of Civil Engineers.' It consisted of three classes-1. Of ordinary members, to consist of real engineers, actually employed as such in

public or in private service. 2. Honorary mem bers, to consist of men of science and gentlemen of rank and fortune, who had applied themselves to subjects of civil engineering; and who might, for knowledge, have been real engineers, had it not been their good fortune to have it in their power to employ others in this profession; and also of those who are employed in other public service, where such and similar kinds of knowledge are necessary. 3. Honorary members, consisting of various artists, whose professions and employments are necessary, or extremely useful, as well as connected with civil engineering.

The Geological Society was instituted in 1811, under a president, four vice-presidents, treasurer, two secretaries, and a foreign secretary.

The Mineralogical Society was instituted in 1799; but it is now incorporated with the former. The Entomological Society of London, instituted in 1806, has a president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary, several fellows, and a printer.

The Linnean Society was founded in 1788, and incorporated in 1802. Its late president was Sir James Edward Smith; it has a council, a treasurer, secretary, and librarian. Its house is in Gerard Street, Soho. It has published upwards of twenty volumes of Transactions.

The Astronomical Society of London is a rising society of the metropolis of great promise. It was instituted in 1823, and enrols many distinguished names.

SOCIETY ISLANDS. A group of islands in the Pacific, to which Captain Cook gave the name of Society Islands, consists of six only, viz. Marua, Bolabola, Tubia, Otaha, Ulietea, and Huaheine; but to these we may add Otaheite, Eimeo, Sir Charles Saundes's, Tethuroa, and Miatea. See ОTAHEITE. &c.

PART I.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. This group, as Mr. Pinkerton justly observes, has attracted more attention than any other in Polynesia, and our admiration of Otaheite has excited some degree of ridicule on the continent. The unfortunate La Perouse remarks, in one of his letters, I flatter myself you will see with pleasure that in the course of so long a voyage I shall have no occasion to put in at those everlasting Society Islands, about which more has been written than concerning several kingdoms of Europe; and I confess to you that I congratulate myself on having nothing to say about Otaheite and queen Oberea.' But it may be said that this accomplished seaman shows some little jealousy of the English discoverers, and is led to prefer the French group called the Islands of Navigators, which perhaps in size and population exceed the Society Islands. The opportunity of fishing has been assigned as a reason why the inhabitants of all the Polynesian islands fix their abodes near the sea; but where fruits are the staple commodities, and the bread

fruit the staff of life, as in the Society Islands, the pre-eminent fertility of the level which like a margin embraces certain portions of the island, affording a plane for the rearing of huts and villages, and in this way the means of enjoying the social benefits of a pleasant neighbourhood, a traveller feels to be a much more general motive for the Indian's preference. Besides, the refreshing coolness of shade, fanned by the alternating sea and land breezes, makes these withdrawing vales very grateful retreats during the sunny hours of noontide, when compared with the barren acclivities of the mountains, which in the morning perhaps are parched by an unclouded sun, and in the afternoon drenched with inclement rains. This sudden vicissitude from heat to cold is very keenly felt by a wayfaring man, as the writer has often experienced, one hour panting with heat, the next shivering with cold, unless haply by timely warning he forestalls the impending shower and repairs with hasty steps to the sea side. Whence the reader will observe that, passing over the difficulty and sultry toil of ascending and descending steeps, the interior of an island is, from the seemingly attracting influence of the mountains upon the vapory contents of the atmosphere, much more exposed to the inclemency of heavy showers than its sea-girt borders, where their low roofed cottages thatched with dried palm leaves are not so often wetted by rain.

Forster says that the Society Isles are encircled with a reef of coral, the lower hills are

of a red ochreous earth, the higher of a kind of argillaceous rock, with coarse granite or the saxum of Linnæus. Black and gray basalt are also found, and it is said crystals of native sulphur.

In order to give the reader some perception of that remarkable change which the civil and religious phenomena have undergone, we will extract a few remarks from that excellent account of the Society Islands collected by the compiler of the missionary voyage, and place them in counterview with some observations made by the writer who visited this group, as well as that of the Sandwich Islands, in 1826, as naturalist to the Blossom.

The government of Otaheite is monarchica. and hereditary in one of the family; of this two branches subsist, Temarre the son of Oberea, and Oammo.' The government now, during the regency of the present queen, is managed by contending chiefs, since her majesty by acts of plunder, injustice, and swinish debauchery, has rendered her authority despicable. Her son, the heir apparent, was a boy of a hopeful disposition, and nursed in moral and religious knowledge in the school of the missionaries. We are sorry to add that this youth, who raised high expectations of his future worth, has since the departure of the Blossom paid the debt of nature. The palace of the queen, which was visited for the special purpose of seeing the best of the choral amusements, might by comparison deserve the name of dwelling-house, because it was tenanted by human creatures. The floor was formed by nature, and its hardness meliorated by a copious strewment of dirty grass. Upon a wide mat, rolled in elegant disorder, the graced persons of the queen-regent, the queen dowager, the princess, and half a dozen female attendants. To give the reader at a single view an idea of the decorum and decency of this assembly; as the house was not divided into a convenient number of apartments, a sanctuary was formed at one corner of the room, by hanging up a piece of cloth, in order to screen certain impatient lovers from the unbought glances of profaner eyes.

The famous, or rather infamous, Arreoy Society, consisting of noble persons in general, have also different ranks among themselves, like our freemasons, known by the manner of their tattooing.' This cursed club, which maintained a community of wives and the practice of murdering their offsprings, has, by the assiduous and benevolent exertions of the missionaries, been since abolished. We may frame some idea of the lamentable condition of the softer part of human nature, when we remember that a mother deemed it the duty of maternal kindness to give her female child an early quietus, and thus remove it from the sufferance of that hard bondage which she had from the morning of her days unceasingly groaned under. When we sojourn among the Indians of Polynesia, we are apt in contemplating their lewdness, falsehood, and ingratitude, to be severe in our comments, and to express our disapprobation in terms of zealous indignation; but when we return to England, and are again made to feel the

smart of being overreached by the knavish part of our own countrymen, we begin to correct the harshness of our judgment, and to think that iniquity sometimes goes better clad than in a bare maro or scanty apron of a South Sea islander.

There has been a school established for the exclusive education of the children of missionaries, who were in 1826 between seventy`and eighty in number, but didactic institution is unable to root out the connate love of one's native soil, which was the theme of all who commented upon the Odyssey, and is strikingly exemplified in that rising generation. An infant, as soon as he has learnt to distinguish one object from another, prefers a native nurse to its mother, and its first attempts at articulation are made in the Tahitian dialect. In youth they generally evince the greatest awkwardness of behaviour, when a European is present, and speak their mother tongue with great hesitation. The writer remembers a girl of about thirteen years of age whom he often saw at a house of a certain friend, who could never be bribed by any kindness to reply to his attentions otherwise than with a smile of extreme satisfaction; this arose from that sort of diffidence we feel in our first attempts to express ourselves in a foreign language before those with whom it is vernacular. A married lady of the mission family with whom he was well acquainted never ventured to return an answer to any question or remark, till one day the conversation of her father and his visitor happening to turn upon the subject of the native dancing, the mention of a pastime so fondly remembered set her tongue at a happy liberty, and she began with great freedom and complacency to descant upon their peculiar qualities till her father who from the love of conversing with a stranger interrupted the strain of description and proceeded to tell the story himself.

Mr. Armitage, a respectable weaver, about five or six years ago set out from England for the Society Islands, with an intention and means of establishing a manufactory of cotton, which grows abundantly there; and after a great deal of patient labor succeeded in erecting a mill, and a house for the reception of his numerous looms, spinning wheels, &c.; but, when the women began to reflect that besides paying the half of their toil in weaving, in return for the materials and its dressing, their husbands would be copartners with them in the enjoyment of the produce, they gave up working; this worthy man complained to the writer that he despaired of ever being able to stir these sottish islanders up either by example or reward to any habits of industry.

That the people have degenerated since the time of Cook is unquestionable, who, wherever we had a fair opportunity of judging, was found to be very correct in his statements; which has arisen from this cause, that the natives, being ambitious of obtaining European articles, have left off making any of their own fashion, and altogether ceased to busy themselves in contriving any artificial curiosity, either for ornament or their own particular amusement.

He who has been accustomed to look at dis