Upon the materials water is very slowly poured. The liquid, after digestion, is suffered to run slowly off into a reservoir sunk in the ground. The first portion, or ley No. 1, is of course the strongest, and is reserved for the last operation in soap-boiling. Dr. Ure found that a gallon of that of average strength contains 1000 grains of real soda, so that one pound of the alkali is present in seven gallons of the ley. The second portion run off contains 800 grains in one gallon, equivalent to a pound in eight gallons and threequarters. The third contains 600 grains per gallon, or one pound in eleven gallons and twothirds; and the fourth 200 grains, or one pound in thirty-five gallons. The last is not employed directly, but is thrown on a fresh mixture in the cave, to acquire more alkaline strength. Six days are required to make one boiling of soap, in which two tons or upwards of tallow may be employed. The leys 2 and 3, mixed, are used at the beginning, diluted with water, on account of the excess of sea-salt in the kelp. A quantity of ley, not well defined, is poured on the melted tallow, and the mixture is boiled, a workman agitating the materials to facilitate the combination. The fire being withdrawn, and the aqueous liquid having subsided, it is pumped off, and a new portion is thrown in. A second boil is given, and so on in succession. Two or three boils are performed every twelve hours for six days, constituting twelve or eighteen operations in the whole. Towards the last the stronger ley is brought into play. Whenever the workman perceives the saponification perfect the process is stopped; and the soap is lifted out and put into the moulds. When the price of American potash is such as to admit of its economical employment, a ley of that alkali, rendered caustic by lime, is used in the saponification, and the soft potash soap which results is converted into a hard soda soap, by double decomposition. This is effected either by the addition of common salt, or rather of a kelp ley, which supplies abundance of muriate of soda. The muriatic acid goes to the potash, to constitute muriate of potash, which dissolves in the water, and is drawn off in the spent ley; while the soda enters into combination with the fat (or rather the margaric and oleic acids, now evolved), and forms a soap, which becomes solid on cooling. A weak potash ley is used at first, and subsequently one of greater strength. Dr. Ure found the potash ley of a respectable manufacturer to contain 3000 grains of real potash per gallon; which is equivalent to one pound of real alkali in two gallons and one-third. But this proportion is not any standard; for practical soap-boiling is, in regard to the alkaline strength of the leys, in a deplorable state of darkness and imperfection. To this cause chiefly we may ascribe the perpetual disappointments which occur in the soap manufactories. Two tons of tallow, properly saponified, should yield fully three tons of marketable white soap. But a manufacturer has been known to produce only two tons and a half, by some mismanagement of his leys. The sulphureted hydrogen present in the crude alkalies gives a blue stain to the soap. This may be removed, in a great measure, by contact of air. But the proper plan would be to employ an alkali previously deprived as much as possible of its sulphur. Those who decompose sulphate of soda, with the view of using the alkali in saponification, are liable to many accidents from the above cause. Much balsam of sulphur is formed at the expense of the soap; and the manufactured article is generally inferior in detergent powers to the kelp soap, which, however, is by no means so free from sulphur as it might be made, previous to its employment, by simple methods, which would at the same time double its alkaline powers. For brown or yellow soap, a mixture of tallow and resin, with a little palm oil to improve the color, is used. Soap of the coarser quality is made with equal parts of resin and tallow. But that of better quality requires three parts of tallow to one of resin; and for every ton of that mixture, half a hundred weight of palm oil. The resin soaps consume less alkaline ley than those with fat alone." Soft soups.-The compounds of fats or oils with potash remain soft, or at least pasty. Three kinds of these are known in commerce; the soaps from rape-seed, and other oleaginous seeds, called green soaps; toilette soaps, made with hog'slard; and common soft soaps, made with fish oils. Manufacturers of green soap prepare their potash leys as those of hard soap do their soda leys, and conduct their operations in the same manner till the whole oils be added. In this state the soap resembles an unguent. It contains excess of oil, is white, and hardly transparent. After tempering the fire, they keep stirring continually the bottom of the caldron with large spatulas; they then add, by degrees, new leys perfectly caustic, and somewhat stronger than the first. The saturation of the oil is thus effected, and the soap becomes transparent. The fire is now continued to give the soap a suitable consistency, after which it is run off into barrels to be offered for sale. We perceive that this species of soap differs considerably from the soap manufactured with olive oil and soda. Here, from the commencement of the operation to its end, the art of the soapboiler consists in effecting the combination of the oil with the potash, without the soap ceasing to be dissolved in the ley: whilst in the fabrication of hard soap it is necessary, on the contrary, as we have seen, to separate the soap from the ley, even before the saturation of the oil is accomplished. Green soap contains, in general, more alkali than is absolutely necessary for the saturation of the oil. It is, in fact, a perfect soap, dissolved in an alkaline ley. It should be transparent, o. a fine green color; a shade sometimes produced by means of indigo. According to M. Thenard it is usually composed of Potash 9.5 44.0 46.5 100.0 This soft soap may be readily converted into hard soap, as we have stated above, by the addition of muriate of soda. Toilette soaps, made with hog's-lard and potash, should have as small an alkaline excess as possible. The finer soaps for the toilette are made with oil of sweet almonds, with nut oil, palm oil, suet, or butter. They are either potash or soda soaps, as they may be preferred in the pasty or solid state. The following facts from Chaptal, on soft soaps, are worthy of insertion. After introducing into the caldron the half of the oil intended for one coction, the fire is kindled, and, when the oil begins to grow hot, we add to it a portion of the potash lixivium. The remainder of the oil and lixivium must afterwards be gradually poured in during the ebullition. If too much of the lixivium be employed at the commencement, no combination takes place; if the lixivium be too strong, the mixture separates into clots; and, if it be too weak, the union is incomplete. The quantity of the ley employed in one coction ought to be in the proportion of four parts to three of oil. 200 parts of oil, and 125 of potash, yield 325 of soap. When the union is fully accomplished, and the liquor rendered transparent, nothing remains but to employ the necessary degree of coction. The soapboilers judge of the degree of coction by the consistency, by the color, and from the time which the soap takes to coagulate. In order to make the froth subside, and render the mass fit for barrelling, one ton of soap (ready made?) is emptied into the caldron. The soap held in the greatest request is of a brown color, inclining to black. The manufacturers in Flanders dye the soap, by throwing into the caldron, half an hour before the termination of the boiling or coction, a composition of one pound of the sulphate of iron, half a pound of galls, and an equal quantity of red wood; and boiling it with the lixivium. When the soap is prepared with a great portion of warm or yellow oil, a green color may be imparted to it, by pouring into the ley a solution of indigo. This soap is reckoned of the best quality: it remains always in the state of a soft paste, on which account it is placed in casks as expeditiously as possible. Dr. Ure learned the following particulars on the manufacture of soft soap, from an eminent soapboiler, near Glasgow:-273 gallons of whale or cod oil, and four hundred weight of tallow, are but into the boiler, with 252 gallons of potash ley, whose alkaline strength I find to be such, that one gallon contains 6600 grains of real potash. Heat is applied, when the mixture froths up very much, but is prevented from boiling over by the wooden crib, which surmounts the iron caldron. If it now subside into a doughy magma, the ley has been too concentrated. It should have a thin gluey aspect. There are next poured in two measures of a stronger ley, holding each twentyone gallons (containing per gallon 8700 grains real potash), and after a little interval other two measures, and so on progressively, till fourteen measures have been added in the whole. After suitable boiling, without agitation, the soap is formed, amounting in all to 100 firkins of sixtyfour pounds each, from the above quantity of materials. The manufacture of soft soap is reckoned more difficult and delicate than that of hard soap. Rape oil forms a hard soap, neither so consistent nor so white as that from olive-oil. Hempseed oil produces a green-colored soap, reducible to a paste by a small portion of water. The soaps prepared with oils procured from beech-mast and clove July-flowers, are of a clammy glutinous consistence, and generally of a grayish color. Nut-oil forms a soap not proper for the hands; it is of a yellowish-white color, of a moderate degree of consistence, unctuous, gluey, and continues so on exposure to the air. The soap of which linseed oil forms a constituent part is at first white, but changes to yellow in a short time on exposure to the air. It possesses a strong odor, is unctuous, clammy, glutinous, does not dry in the air, and softens with a very small quantity of water. From what has been said we may conclude that the soaps prepared with desiccative oils are of a very indifferent quality, that they remain always glutinous, and readily change their color on exposure to the atmosphere. Some of the volatile oils are not less susceptible of entering into combinations with the alkalies; but, as such soaps are not employed in the arts, we shall not enter into any description of these saponaceous compounds. Metallic soaps.-These soaps have been examined by M. Berthollet, who has proposed some of them as paints, and others as varnishes; but it does not appear that any of them has been hitherto applied to these purposes. 1. Soap of mercury may be formed by mixing together a solution of common soap and of corrosive muriate of mercury. The liquor becomes milky, and the soap of mercury is gradually precipitated. This soap is viscid, not easily dried, loses its white color when exposed to the air, and acquires a slate-color, which gradually becomes deeper, especially if exposed to the sun or to heat. It dissolves very well in oil, but sparingly in alcohol. It readily becomes soft and fluid when heated. 2. Soap of zinc may be formed by mixing together a solution of sulphat of zinc and of soap. It is of a white color, inclining to yellow. It dries speedily and becomes friable. 3. Soap of cobalt, made by mixing nitrate of cobalt and common soap, is of a dull leaden color, and dries with difficulty, though its parts are not conducted. Berthollet observed that, towards the end of the precipitation, there fell down some green coagula, much more consistent than soap of cobalt. These he supposed to be a soap of nickel, which is generally mixed with cobalt. 4. Soap of tin may be formed by mixing common soap with a solution of tin in nitro-muriatic acid. It is white. Heat does not fuse it like other metallic soaps, but decomposes it. 5. Soap of iron may be formed by means of sulphate of iron. It is of a reddish-brown color, tenacious, and easily fusible. When spread upon wool it sinks in and dries. It is easily soluble in oil, especially of turpentine. Berthollet proposes it as a varnish. 6. Soap of copper may be formed by means of sulphate of copper. It is of a green color, has the feel of a resin, and becomes dry and brittle. Hot alcohol renders its color deeper, but scarcely dissolves it. Ether dissolves it, liquifies it, and renders its color deeper and more beautiful. It is very soluble in oils, and gives them a pleasant green color. 7. Soap of lead may be formed by means of acetite of lead. It is white, tenacious, and very adhesive when heated. When fused it is transparent, and becomes somewhat yellow if the heat is increased. 8. Soap of silver may be formed by means of nitrate of silver. It is at first white, but becomes reddish by exposure to the air. When fused, its surface becomes covered with a brilliant iris; beneath the surface it is black. 9. Soap of gold is formed by means of muriate of gold. It is at first white and of the consistence of cream. It gradually assumes a dirty purple color and adheres to the skin. 10. Soap of manganese is formed of sulphate of manganese. It is at first white, and then, by absorbing oxygen, it becomes red. There is no doubt that the ancients, as early at least as the age of Pliny, were in possession of a substance which they denominated soap; but as the word sapo, so far as we are able to trace it, was first employed by Pliny, we have no reason to suppose that the material which it designates was known, at least among the Romans, much earlier than his time; and the mode of making it, as well as the name, appears to have been introduced into Rome from the ancient Germans, whose term for it was sepe, and who certainly employed and manufactured it in an earlier period than the Romans. In effect it was ascribed by the Romans themselves to the Germans and Gauls, as has been observed by the late Dr. Good in his note to his translation of Lucretius, b. iv. 1046, ‘There is no doubt,' he says, that the ancients were in possession of a substance which they denominated soap; and it is equally unquestionable that such soap was formed in a manner not very different from our own. 6 This soap, moreover, was of two sorts, hard and soft; but it does not appear that soap was ever employed among the Greeks, nor very early among the Romans, as an article of trade, by their fullers or scourers, and, notwithstanding the similarity of manufacture which seems to have prevailed, these soaps, whether hard or soft, were rather unguents for the head, than articles made use of for the purpose of blanching. Prodest est sapo,' says Pliny, xxviii. 12. Galliarum hoc inventum mutandis capillis. Fit ex sebo et cinere, optimus fagino et capirno. Duobus modis, spissus ac liquidus. Uterque apud Germanos majore in usa viris quam fæminis.' 'Soap is also useful, which is an invention of the Gauls, for deepening the color of the hair. It is made of suet and ashes, the best soap being from the suet of the goat and the ashes of the beech-tree. There are two sorts of soap, a solid and a liquid. Among the Germans the men employ both kinds more freely than the women.' That it was applied to the hair, for the purpose here specified, we learn also from Martial, who, in one of his epigrams, advises an old coquette who raved at her gray locks to procure soap balls from Germany to change their color. By degrees, how VOL. XX. ever, and probably, first of all, about the time of Galen, these soaps began to be employed in the scouring of woollen stuffs, as well as for the purpose of general cleanliness: for, after having stated the different repute of the soaps of different countries, he thus expresses himself, as though he were relating a truth not generally known: 'Verum omnis sapo potest omnem sordem de corpore abstergere, vel de pannis.' But every kind of soap is capable of removing filth, of whatever description, whether from the body or from clothes.' Dr. Good farther observes that, antecedently to the use of soap, the detersive materials commonly employed were urine, which for this purpose was collected at Rome in large reservoirs, lixivium or lye, and various plants, of which the chief appears to have been what the Hebrews called borith (), the Greeks struthos or struthion (arpovog or orpovlov), and the Romans herba lanaria, or radix lanaria, probably the saponaria of Linnéus. The fullers of Rome employed also absorbent earths in conjunction with lyes and detersive plants. These were of various kinds, and from various countries: the most esteemed was that denominated Cimolian earth, from the Isle of Cimolis, which was one of the Cyclades, and where it was found in abundance. It was known at least as early as the time of Aristophanes, who mentions it in his comedy of The Frogs; and it is still in use, according to Bomare, among the inhabitants of the Archipelago, and applied to the same purpose of bleaching stuffs and linens. They also employed another kind of absorbent earth, which was procured in the island of Sardinia; which, however, was principally made use of in cleaning white dresses, and did not equally succeed when applied to colored; whence it is styled, by Nonius Marcellus, inutilis versicoloribus. These earths or boles were, for the most part, pressed into the stuffs or cloths by the hands or feet; hence the phrase in Nonius: pedibus cretam dum compescis;' and these various operations produce an amazing change in their texture by driving the web of the woof more closely to that of the chain, and hence blending them more intimately together. When cloths and serges first proceed from the hands of the weaver, they are loose and coarse, and in this state would be but of little value or duration. But, by intermingling and amalgamating the web of the chain with that of the woof, the artist renders both finer and stronger. This operation of fulling, as just observed, was chiefly produced by the action of the hands or feet; by rubbing with the former or trampling with the latter, and is significantly expressed by the Greek terms TаTεLV σνμжатto@al, and by Nonius, argutari pedibus. Rollers were, nevertheless, occasionally employed in this branch of the business, as well for beating as for pressing the cloth; and Cato, among other utensils with which a farmhouse ought to be stocked, enumerates, in consequence, the pile fullonicæ, or fuller's beams or rollers, which, he expressly tells us, were formed of wood.' The present duties imposed on soap are:- When swallows fleet soar high, and sport in air, He told us that the welkin would be clear. Gay. SOB, v. n. & n. s. Sax. reob, complaining. To heave audibly with convulsive sorrow; sigh with convulsion: a sigh of this kind. When thy warlike father, like a child, Shakspeare. Fairfax. She sighed, she sobbed, and furious with despair She rent her garments, and she tore her hair. Dryden. I sobbed; and with faint eyes Looked upwards to the Ruler of the skies. Harte. SOBER, adj. & v. a.` Fr. sobre; Lat. soSOBER'LY, adv. brius. Temperate, parSOBER'NESS, n. s. ticularly in liquors; not SOBRIETY, drunken: hence regular; calm in mind or character; serious; grave: to make sober: the adverb and noun substantive corresponding. Young men likewise exhort to be sober minded. Titus ii. 6. Live a sober, righteous, and godly life. Common Prayer. Keep my body in temperance, soberness, and chastity. Id. In setting down the form of common prayer, there was no need that the book should mention either the learning of a fit, or the unfitness of an ignorant, minister; more than that he which describeth the manner how to pitch a field should speak of moderation and sobriety in diet. Hooker. A law there is among the Grecians, whereof Pittachus is author; that he which being overcome with drink did then strike any man, should suffer punishment double as much as if he had done the same Id. being sober. This same young sober blooded boy a man cannot make him laugh. Shakspeare. Id. Shall offer me, disguised in sober robes, To old Baptista as a schoolmaster. Enquire, with all sobriety and severity, whether there be in the footsteps of nature any such transmission of immateriate virtues, and what the force of imagination is. Bacon. Let any prince think soberly of his forces, except his militia of natives be valiant soldiers. Id. The governour of Scotland, being of great courage and sober judgment, amply performed his duty both before the battle and in the field. Hayward. Cieca travelled all over Peru, and is a grave and sober writer. Abbot's Description of the World. The vines give wine to the drunkard as well as to the sober man. Taylor's Worthy Communicant. Drunkenness is more uncharitable to the soul, and in scripture is more declaimed against, than gluttony; and sobriety hath obtained to signify temperance in drinking. Taylor. A report without truth; and, I had almost said, without any sobriety or modesty. Waterland. Mirth makes them not mad; Denham. Had in her sober livery all things clad. A person noted for his soberness, and skill in spagyrical preparations, made Helmont's experiment succeed very well. Boyle. Sobriety in our riper years is the effect of a well concocted warmth; but where the principles are only phlegm, what can be expected but an insipid man hood, and old infancy? Dryden. Another, who had a great genius for tragedy, following the fury of his natural temper, made every man and woman in his plays stark raging mad; there was not a sober person to be had; all was tempestuous and blustering. Id. Id. The soberness of Virgil might have shewn the difference. Whenever children are chastised, let it be done without passion, and soberly, laying on the blows slowly. Locke. he may be guilty of, can look with complacency No sober temperate person, whatsoever other sins upon the drunkenness and sottishness of his neighbpur. South's Sermons. The libertine could not prevail on men of virtue and sobriety to give up, their religion. Rogers. Be your designs ever so good, your intentions ever so sober, and your searches directed in the fear of God. Waterland. What parts gay France from sober Spain? A little rising rocky chain : SOC (Sax.) signifies power or liberty to minister justice or execute laws: also the circuit or territory wherein such power is exercised. Whence the law Latin word socca is used for seignory or lordship enfranchised by the king, with the liberty of holding or keeping a court of his sockmen and this kind of liberty continues in divers parts of England to this day, and is known by the name of soke and soken. SOC'CAGE, n. s. Fr. soc, a ploughshare; barb. Lat. soccagium. In law, a tenure of lands for certain inferior or husbandly services to be performed to the lord of the fee: so that whatever is not knight's service is soccage. The lands are not holden at all of her majesty, or not holden in chief, but by a mean tenure in soccage, Bacon. or by knight's service. SOCCAGE, in law, is a tenure of lands, for certain inferior or husbandly services to be performed to the lord of the fee. All services due for land being knight's service, or soccage; so that whatever is not knight's service is soccage. This soccage is of three kinds; a soccage of free tenure, where a man holdeth by free service of twelve pence a year for all manner of services. Soccage of ancient tenure is of land of ancient demesne, where no writ original shall be sued, but the writ secundum consuetudinem manerii. Soccage of base tenure is where those that hold it may have none other writ but the monstraverunt, and such sockmen hold not by certain service: Cowel, The lands are not holden in chief but by a mean tenure in soccage.-Bacon. SOCCAGE OF SOCAGE (says the learned Blackstone, in his Comm. vol. ii.), in its most general and extensive signification, denotes a tenure by any determinate service. In this sense it is by ancient writers constantly put in opposition to chivalry or knight-service, where the render was precarious and uncertain. The service must therefore be certain, to denominate it soccage; as to hold by fealty and 20s rent; or by homage, fealty, and 20s rent; or by homage and fealty without rent; or by fealty and certain corporal services, as ploughing the lord's land for three days; or by fealty only, without any other service; for all these are tenures in socage. Socage is of two sorts; free socage, where the services are not only certain but honorable; and villein socage, where the services, though certain, are of a baser nature. See VILLENAGE. Such as hold by the former tenure are called, in Glanvil and other subsequent authors, by the name of liberi sokemanni, or tenants in free socage. The word is derived from the Saxon appellation soc, which signifies liberty or privilege; and, being joined to a usual termination, is called socage, in Latin socagium; signifying thereby a free or privileged tenure. It seems probable that the socage tenures were the relics of Saxon liberty; retained by such persons as had neither forfeited them to the king, nor been obliged to exchange their tenure for the more honorable, as it was called, but at the same time more burdensome, This is peculiarly tenure of knight-service. remarkable in the tenure which prevails in Kent, called gavelkind, which is generally acknowledged to be a species of socage tenure; the preservation whereof inviolate from the innovations of the Norman conqueror is a fact universally known. And those who thus preserved their liberties were said to hold in free and common socage. As therefore the grand criterion, and distinguishing mark of this species of tenure, are the having its renders or services ascertained, it will include under it all other methods of holding free lands by certain and invariable rents and duties; and in particular, petit sergeantry, tenure in burgage, and gavelkind. SO'CIABLE, adj. Fr. sociable; Lat. soSo'CIABLENESS, n. s. ciabilis. Fit or ready to So CIABLY, adv. be conjoined or united; SOCIAL, adj. Sfriendly, familiarited; cial is in many respects synonymous; it means also easy; relating to society: the noun substantive and adverb follow the senses of sociable. Another law toucheth them, as they are sociable parts united into one body; a law which bindeth them each to serve unto other's good, and all to prefer the good of the whole before whatsoever their own Hooker. particular. In children much solitude and silence I like not, needs be in that sociable and exposed age. Wotton. nor any thing born before his time, as this must Such as would call her friendship love, and feign To sociableness a name profane. Donne. He always used courtesy and modesty, disliked of none; sometimes sociableness and fellowship, well liked by many. Hayward. Them thus employed beheld Yet not terrible, Milton. |