CHAPTER I. 66 "" ZOOLOGY OF THE BIBLE-VARIOUS CLASSES OF ANIMALS-DISTINCTION OF CLEAN AND UNCLEAN DOMESTICATED ANIMALS REGULATIONS AS TO THEIR TREATMENT-ASS-CAMEL-CATTLE -DOGS. 66 66 ANIMALS are generally classified in the Bible under the following five heads:—(1) Cattle," or domesticated animals. (2) Beasts of the field, or wild animals. (3) Creeping things, which included all the small animals, whether with or without legs, and whether with or without wings. (4) Fowls of the air. (5) Fish of the sea. (Gen. i. 20-26). The third of these classes is subdivided in the xi. chap. of Leviticus into (1) "flying creeping things," or insects, and (2) creeping things that creep," or reptiles, including, as before, under that designation, the small animals with legs: the "flying creeping things" are further subdivided into (1) those "that go upon all fours, which have legs above (i. e., in addition to) their feet (meaning, apparently, by feet,' legs adapted for walking), to leap upon the earth," and (2)" those which have four feet" (vv. 21, 23, 29). The object of this distinction clearly was to separate the hopping from the walking insects, but the description of these species seems to imply that only the hopping insects had six legs, which is well known not to be the case. 6 The classes above enumerated do not accord with those with which we are familiar in modern systems of zoology, wherein the physical conformation rather than the use or the size of the animal supplies the basis of classification. Fish and birds still form two distinct divisions of the animal kingdom, but neither the separation of the wild beasts ("beasts of the field ") from the domesticated animals ("cattle,") nor yet the combination of the smaller quadrupeds with the reptiles, as maintained even in the enlarged classification of Leviticus, I would be admitted. We propose, however, in the present work to retain the biblical arrangement, inasmuch as it conveys to the mind a more correct view of the opinions of the ancient Jews on this subject. We shall therefore have six classes, viz. :-(1) Cattle; (2) wild beasts; (3) birds; (4) flying creeping things, or insects; (5) creeping things that creep, or reptiles, including smaller animals with legs; (6) fish. Each of the above classes is further distinguished into two, according as they were pronounced to be clean or unclean by the Mosaic law. The object of this distinction, and the principle upon which it was based, are not very evident; but they probably have reference partly to the habits of the animals, and partly to their wholesomeness as meat. Among the wild and domesticated animals, all were unclean that were not at the same time ruminant and perfectly cloven-footed, so that only certain herbivorous animals were classed as clean. Among the birds, the prohibited species were either carnivorous or rapacious in their habits. Fish that had not fins and scales were reputed to be unwholesome, and were therefore forbidden. Certain kinds of locusts were reputed as clean; other insects, and many of the reptiles were forbidden (Lev. xi. 3-31). Under the head of "cattle," or domesticated animals, we find the majority of those with which we are familiar, such as the ox, the ass, the horse, the sheep, the goat, the mule, and to a certain extent, the dog, and the pig. The two latter, however, were less domesticated in Palestine than in our country; the first by reason of its wild and foul habits, the second by reason of its legal uncleanness. We must add to this list one domesticated animal which is not a denizen of these climates, viz., the camel, which is most valuable as a beast of burden in the sandy wastes that surround Palestine. The buffalo, which is now largely used for farm-work in Egypt and Syria, does not appear to have been domesticated in ancient times. The Mosaic law inculcated kindness towards domesticated animals in various ways. Cattle were to share in the rest of the Sabbath (Ex. xx. 10): the ox was not to be muzzled as it trode out the grain, but was to be allowed to feed (Deut. xxv. 4): the straying or wearied beast was to be attended to, even if it belonged to an enemy (Ex. xxiii. 4, 5): the mother and her offspring were not to be killed at the same time (Lev. xxii. 28): the kid was not to be seethed in its mother's milk (Ex. xxiii. 19): animals of different kinds were not to be yoked together (Deut. xxii. 10): these and other similar precepts, though they may have had other objects, no doubt tended to implant a general spirit of benevolence towards the animals which ministered to man's comfort. Having made these prefatory remarks, we proceed to a description of the several animals in their alphabetical order. Ass. The ass of Eastern countries is in every respect -appearance, capacity, and character-superior to the patient but indolent animal with which we are SO familiar. It is generally of a light or reddish colour, and from this feature it derives its ordinary Hebrew name, chamor. The she-ass was distinguished by a wholly different appellation (athon) significant of its slow, steady pace, which made it more highly prized for riding purposes. The young ass also had its specific name, air, indicative of its spirit or swiftness. Hence the terms are separately mentioned in passages where the stock of a wealthy chief is stated: Abraham, for instance, was presented by Pharaoh with "he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses" (Gen. xii. 16); and Esau by Jacob "with twenty sheasses, and ten foals," i. e., young riding-asses (Gen. |