3s. 4d.; 12lb. raisins, 1s. 1d. In 1440, malt, 13s. per qr.; bay salt, 1s. per bush.

In 1414, malt was 4s. per qr.'; for 26 warp of ling was paid 17. 10s.4d.; for 100 stock-fish, 17s. 6d.; for a barrel of herrings (i.e., 30 gallons fully packed), 1. In 1445, ale, 14d. per gallon; for 3,000 red herrings, 17. 118 In 1448, a cade of red herrings, 5s. 8d.; a barrel of white, 9s. 3d. In 1449, a cade of red berrings, 6s.; a barrel of white herrings, 10s. 3d. In 1451, ale, 1d. per gallon; a cade of red berrings, 7s. 4d.; a barrel of white herrings, 13s. 6d. In 1453, ale, 14d. per gallon; cade of red herrings, 7s. 6d.; four score white herrings, 1s. In 1457, ale, 1d. per gallon; a cade of red herrings, 6s. 8d.; 92 white herrings, 1s.

In the 51st year of Henry III. it was determined by authority that, when a quarter of barley was sold at 2s,, then ale might be afforded four quarts for 1d. And when barley was sold at 2s. 6d. per qr., then ale was to be seven quarts for 2d.; and so to increase and decrease after the rate of 6d. per quarter. But no rules can always hold for trade (says Bishop Fleetwood), as you may see by comparing the price of barley and ale in these and other accounts. In 1459, ale 2d. the gallon; red herrings, 7s. 10d. the cade; 92 white herrings, 1s. In 1460, ale, 1d. the gallon; red herrings, 7s. the cade; 192 white berrings for 2d. lu 1416, bay salt, very dear, 24s. the gr. in 1494, very cheap, 4s. the qr. In 1495, white herrings, 3s. 4d. per barrel. In 1469, bay salt, 2s. 8d. per qr. In 1504, ale of London (per pipe or butt of 126 gallons,) 17. 10s., or nearly 3d. per gallon; ale of Canterbury, 17. 5s.; beer, 1 3s. 4d. In 1551, malt was 3s. 1d. per qr.; from 1553 to 1557, 5s.; but before harvest, in 1557, it had reached the price of 21. 4s. per qr.; after harvest it fell to 6s. 8d. in London, 4s. 8d. in the country. In 1561, it was 5. again. In 1574, provisions so dear that five herrings sold for 2d., bay salt (never before so dear), 65. per bushel. In 1595, sweet butter, 7d. per lb. In 1598, pepper, 8s. per lb., raisins, 6d.

REPORT ON THE EXHIBITION OF IMPLEMENTS AT THE BRISTOL MEETING IN 1842.

(FROM THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.)

(Concluded.)

Subsoil pulverizers.-The collections of most of the larger machine-makers contained specimens of subsoil ploughs, efficiently constructed after well known models. Of these it is unnecessary to make particular mention. Three implements of this class were selected for trial, which deserve special notice.

The Honourable M. W. B. Nugent, of Higham Grange, near Hinckley, Leicestershire, exhibited an implement of his own invention, which may be correctly termed a subsoil pulverizer, as its object is to undermine, break, and stir the subsoil, without raising it to the surface, which latter is the specific function of the plough. These two operations are distinct in their intent and nature; it would appear, therefore, to be more correct to designate the implements used for the two purposes by distinct and appropriate names. Mr.

Nugent's subsoil pulverizer consists of several strong curved coulters or teeth, so fixed to the beam of the implement as to work under the soil at unequal depths, and at distances varying from each other both in length and breadth. Thus, the mass to be broken up is not opposed to the action of a single blade, as in the common subsoil plough, but is cut and disturbed by the successive action of several blades, which penetrate, loosen, and move the soil to the respective depths at which they may be set to act; for which purpose, and to suit various soils, each tine is made adjustable. The implement submitted to trial, which was the first yet constructed, had four blades operating in succession, at six, nine, twelve, and sixteen inches in depth, moving, pulverizing, and incorporating the soil to that depth, and to about twelve inches in the transverse section. It is furnished with two leading, and two hind or trailing wheels, for the following purposes-First, for assisting in the regulation of the depth stirred; second, to travel the implement; third, to raise the teeth out of the ground at the end of a bout. Much ingenuity and good workmanship were displayed in bringing about these ends, and in accomplishing, by the hand, and at the will of the holder, an instantaneous change in the working depth of the blades.

Some of the mechanical details of this implement were not in a complete state, and its action, therefore, not so certain and perfect as is desirable; but the judges had no hesitation in awarding a prize to the inventor, as the quality of the work done seemed to them to justify the correctness of the principles which had guided him in the construction of an important implement; and its defects did not appear to be other than might readily be rectified by a skilful mechanic, aided by the light of further experience in its use.

Mr. Pusey's plough, which has received the name of the " Charlbury Subsoil," was also tried. It is a common wheel plough, having a single tine or stirrer attached to its hinder part, which descends a few inches below the sole, and is intended to loosen the soil in its track, deepening, and to a limited extent pulverizing, the stratum beneath. This modification of a subsoil pulverizer has the advantage of simplicity and cheapness, and the combination may be usefully employed on light soils, and by farmers possessing only a limited command of team.*

A

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Trenching and Subsoil Plough.-To Mr. Law, of Shettleston, near Glasgow, a prize was awarded for a trenching and subsoil plough combined. This implement performed its work very satisfaetorily, with a team of six horses, trenching in one direction, and subsoiling in the returning one. trenching furrow having been cut, the mouldboard or wrest is turned up out of the way, by means of the same simple mechanism as is adapted to Smith's (or Wilkie's) turnwrest plough. implement is then reversed, put into the furrow, and the operation of subsoiling proceeds without unyoking the team. The trenching or deep ploughing operation is performed on the left-hand side of the implement; and the spur or bar for breaking up the subsoil is placed, in returning, on the right-hand side; consequently, the force is applied on the same side as that on which the furrow-slice has been turned; and it seems rea

*See a woodcut of this plough in the Journal of the Society, vol. iii., part i., p. 106.

With respect to the excellence of the work done by these ploughs, as well as lightness of draught, the palm of merit is unquestionably due to Mr. Howards two-wheel implement, the furrow-bottom being left cleaner and flatter, the slice better turned and placed, and the depth more evenly maintained, than by any other of the competing ploughs. The dynamometer exhibited a peculiar steadiness of movement and uniformity of draught in this plough; and the same qualities were distinguishable as belonging, in a superior degree, to all the wheel, compared with the swing, ploughs. The remark made in recording the experiments at Liverpool, viz., that the weight of soil actually raised by the wheel-ploughs was in every case greater than that turned over by the swings, is equally applicable on the present occasion, inasmuch as all the swing-ploughs leaned more or less to the land side, and did not maintain so even and horizontal a bearing on the sole as the wheelploughs. The two kinds of plough from the same workshop, of which there were three different pairs in the field, manifested these qualities in every case. Two better ploughs than Mr. Brayton's have rarely been put into the ground, and they were held by an experienced and skilful ploughman of Mr. Falkner's, of Fairfield, near Liverpool; but the work of his one-wheel was decidedly superior to that of his swing plough, though the draught of both was alike. The same may be said of the performance of Mr. Carson's and Mr. Howards implements; and it is worthy of note, that the resistance of Mr. Howard's two

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26

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With two knives.

Ditto, with skim coulter.

Double furrow. Ditto.

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Prize.

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wheel was less than that of his swing plough by four stones, the latter equaling a new and very elegantly constructed swing plough from the workshop of the Earl of Ducie, to whom the prize was adjudged, as the quality of the work done by the latter was considered to be superior, in a slight degree, to that of the other ploughs of this class.

Surface pulverizing plough.-The judges have to report, in addition to the trials of these well known varieties, the performance of an implement constructed by Mr. Mason, of Grafton, Warwickshire, which, as a common wheel plough, did excellent work; but its peculiarity consists in the addition of pulverizing knives attached to moveable bars or rods, extending beyond the end of the mouldboard. These knives are used in suitable soils for cutting off the angular summit of the furrow-slice just raised, and dividing it into two, or if requisite, into three portions. Having ascertained the draught of this plough in its ordinary state (see woodcut, fig. 1), one of the knives, a, was put in work to about the depth of two inches below the surface of the slice; and then a second knife, acting at a somewhat greater depth below the upper one. Under these conditions the dynamometer exhibited an increase of draught of four stones, or a little more than fifteen per cent. The skim-coulter, b, was then set down to the depth of about an inch; this did not appear to cause any increase of resistance.

The woodcut shows the plough in perspective, with sufficient accuracy to illustrate the position of the knives, when out of work, and the simple

Mr. Stokes, who has continually used this plough since 1839, in soils varying as to tenacity, from light sand to stubborn clay, describes the appearance produced by the action of the knives on stiff adhesive soils to be that of a well spade-dug field, only that the work is more evenly and better performed, and that a sufficiently fine tilth is obtained, even on such soils, for the reception of seed to be drilled, without the use of the harrow, and with the further advantage of avoid ing the poaching and trampling incident to it. The harrow is, unquestionably, the rudest and least efficient of all agricultural implements, and a promise seems at length to be held out that, in the preparation of land for subsequent drill husbandry, its use may be occasionally dispensed with; nor does it seem unreasonable to expect that a single ploughing, with the knives, may, on some soils, save the time and cost of a second plough ing.*

Double-furrow and turnwrest ploughs.—The two double-furrow ploughs, the draught of which is recorded in the foregoing table were not in perfect trim for work. It is much to be desired that on future occasions the exhibitors of these implements, which are so much approved in certain districts, and on particular soils, would take the precaution to have them sent to the ground previously well set, and be provided with holders accustomed to their management. Others were also tried, but their draught was not taken, owing to the want of these precautions. The Society's prize was not awarded for these, or for the turnwrest ploughs. Two of the latter kind were tried -the one made by Mr. Huckvale, the other by Mr. Wilkie-but neither of them were in a condition to satisfy the judges that a correct decision on their merits or draught could be arrived at. Mr. Wilkie was not present, on account of illness. Ploughs of other kinds were also submitted to trial, but nothing worthy of note was elicited.

Draining and paring ploughs.—The premium offered for an open-furrow draining-plough was not adjudged. The show-yard contained one implement only of this kind, by Mr. James Comins, of South Molton, which was not tried. Mr. Johnson, of Leicester, exhibited Mr. Glover's excellent turf and stubble paring-plough, rewarded at Liverpool, which the judges were pleased to learn has met with the encouragement it merits.

In concluding these comments, the judges must express their consciousness that, owing to the insufficient time allotted for examining minutely so extensive an assortment of implements, they may have overlooked, or omitted the mention of, meritorous productions. Some implements, not rewarded, may also have been esteemed by visi tors equal or superior in excellence to those which carried prizes; and it is requisite to state that, for reasons unexplained and undiscovered, the showyard contained numerous implements which were not entered for competition of these, therefore no note was taken, as they did not pass under the observation of the judges.

Observations on ploughs.-Much useful instruction may be drawn from the experiments on the draught of ploughs, and on the quality of the work performed, now annually made at the instance of the society. The mean resistance of the five wheel

For additional information respecting this invention, see the end of this Report, p. 40.

ploughs registered in the foregoing list was 386 pounds, whilst that of the six swing-ploughs was 420 pounds, being a difference of nearly 9 per cent. in favour of the wheel-ploughs; and the dif ference in the resistance of the best implement of the two kinds was 18 per cent. in favour of the wheel-plough. It may also be safely affirmed that the quality of the performance in the same soil, by the respective ploughs, and under like circumstances of depth, width of slice cut, &c., is as the lightness of draught, i.e. in favour of the plough of least resistance.

On this occasion the judges took the precaution, after the trials, to suspend weights to the dynamometer, in order to verify the accuracy of its graduation, and to ascertain if any change had taken place in its indications during the experiments. The instrument was found to have given strictly correct results throughout the range of the draughts noted. It is also proper to state that the ploughs, after being got into trim, were successively brought to the same part of the field, and the indication of the force was recorded at the time of each plough's passage through similar soil, the pace being as nearly as possible alike in every case. The nature and form of the field selected for the purpose compelled the judges-at a considerable loss of time-to adopt this plan, as the quality of the soil varied materially in different parts, and the sharp slope of the ground in some parts of it would have rendered the experiments nugatory if the force of draught had not been taken pretty nearly in one locality.

An analysis and comparison of the results obtained at Liverpool, and Bristol, discloses facts of no slight importance to the agriculturist and ploughwright. The difference between the mean draught of the wheel and swing ploughs at the former trial was 17 per cent. in favour of the wheel plough, and there was an equality in this respect between the best implements of each kind. At Bristol one maker, Mr. Howard, of Bedford, produced a wheel-plough which beat his own swing by 18 per cent., the latter being equal to the best on the ground. At Liverpool, the difference between the maximum and minimum resistance of the plough was nearly 43 per cent., whilst at Bristol it amounted to 63 per cent.; in both cases in favour of the wheel-ploughs. Whatever may be the cause of this enormous irregularity and disparity in the force required to perform work indentically similar, it is apparent that the expenditure of animal power, and its cost to the farmer, are altogether dependant on the implement he employs, and proportional to the force used; also, that in the single operation of ploughing, he is frequently consuming at least one-half more power than is necessary to perform his work. The elementary resistance of any given sort of soil is a constant quantity, and the skill of the ploughwright should be exercised in the endeavour to diminish, to its minimum amount, the excess of force employed to move the implement over and above that which is absolutely requisite to divide, under-cut, raise, and lay the furrow-slice; all which operations are implied under the technical phrase ploughing. It is evident that, at Bristol, the difference between the extremes of draught required in the same soil by wheel-ploughs, and by those of the swing

*The draught of the double-furrow and turnwrest ploughs is not included in this estimate.