The Farmer's Magazine

CULTIVATION OF TURNIPS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

SIR,-In your paper of the 7th inst., I observe one of your correspondents putting certain queries in reference to Mr. Scougall's mode of raising turnips. It so happens that although I know nothing of Mr. S., and until a late publication of yours heard no more of his experiment than if he had lived in the planet Jupiter; but that as I have been raising turnips on the same plan (not upon firstrate turnip soil, but upon land the very opposite) I deem it not out of place to give you an account of my experiment-not in opposition to Mr. S., but in confirmation of the advantages to be derived in certain situations from this new method of working.

I would beg, then, to state that the greater part of the land I farm is a stiff retentive loam upon a clay subsoil, not at all adapted for raising green crops when wrought in the old way, as the herculean labour which such land requires to bring it to a proper state of pulverisation, either for potatoes or turnips, exhausts the moisture so much in dry seasons that there can be no vegetation; at least, this is my experience during the 10 years I have been tenant of Piffer Mill, and half crops don't do well when rents are so high as in our neighbourhood.

After the experience I have had, and the difficulties I had to contend with in working such landevidently not adapted for green crop, particularly for turnip husbandry, when wrought in the old way-I resolved to try if nature would not help me if wrought in some other way.

The crop upon the field (one of the stiffest I have) I experimented upon was tares, which were cut green; so soon as they were removed from the ground, I cross-ploughed the field with deep furrow. It was then well wrought with the grubber and harrows, and early in the month of October the field was single-drilled at twenty-eight inches apart, but owing to the season, was prevented putting on the dung until the end of December and beginning of January, at which time we carted it into the drills.

The manure was nearly of the same kind as our police manure, which principally consists of ashes from coal, with a proportion of night soil, &c., &c., of which we gave about forty single horse carts per Scotch acre; it (i. c. the manure) was then covered in by splitting the drills with the common plough, and in this state, rough as it was, it lay until the end of March, when the drills were found almost as soft and fine as a piece of garden ground from the action of the frost. The field was rather foul, and at this period we gave the drills a double turn of the harrows, gathered off the weeds with the hand, run down between the drills with a single horse-grubber, and again set up the drills with the double-moulded plough; the same operation was performed just before sowing, for the purpose of keeping the annuals, with which we are troubled, in check. The field was then sown on the 15th May with green top yellow, and the remainder with white globe on the 25th and 26th of same month.

This is therefore the way in which I went to work, and which I found mere child's play compared with the old way. But what is of far more importance, in the month of September I found the crop infinitely better than any crop I have raised in former years, and quite superior to some I had

wrought in spring this year, weighing about forty tons per Scotch acre, including tops; and while, almost without exception, the whole turnips in the neighbourhood were much injured by mildew, these were nearly free, although sown much earlier than we are accustomed to sow.

The field was dunged 5 years back, but has been twice top-dressed with soot to the extent of 10 bags of 4 bushels each per acre since it was changed.

I may add, in conclusion, that although the plan was never heard of in this neighbourhood until this year, a number of our best farmers are adopting it some extent; and I am making ten acres this year instead of seven acres, which I had last year.

I have thus, Sir, stated at greater length than I intended when I sat down to write you my views of the plan I have adopted; and if it shall meet with your approbation, and be found of as much balm to the country as I think it is, I shall rejoice in subscribing myself,

Your most humble servant, PETER THOMPSON. Piffer Mill, Liberton, Mid Lothian, Nov. 10.

ARTIFICIAL, OR STRONG PORT-
ABLE MANURES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE WEST BRITON.

SIR, I have many times been gratified in observing Mr. J. Prideaux's endeavours to instruct farmers; but the great difficulty is to induce them to read and They like old customs, however absurd, and, con learn. In some things, they are regular Tories. sequently, have great aversion to change; and their veneration for the wisdom of their ancestors is such, that as their fathers and grandfathers did, so do they. They all profess to know the value of dung as manure, and yet take little or no care to make the most of it. To be sure, the farm-yards are in general miserably constructed, with the cattle houses so scattered and inconveniently placed, that it is most difficult to bring all the dung together into one common saucerlike pit, according to Mr.P.'s excellent plan. The waste occasioned by having a little heap Mr. P.'s simple plan, involving only a little more of dung here, and another there, is incalculable. Îf than ordinary labour, were adopted and carefully acted upon, farmers' dung heaps would be bigger and better than they usually are.

Having said this much in commendation of Mr. P.'s laudable aim, I must now notice one little sentence, which has an evident tendency to cherish a prejudice already too prevalent among our west country farmers. Strong artificial manures are with many of them in low repute; and yet there are numberless farms that never can be improved to any considerable extent without the use of them. It is with regret, therefore, that I find Mr. P. writing this sentence:" They generally force or forward the crop, without doing much to enrich the soil with humus ;" and marking it, too, with italics, to indicate, as it would seem, that be attached to it more than ordinary importance. Why, prejudiced and ignorant farmers have said the same thing, after their fashion, over and over. How," say they, "ken a leetle crame

o' bone dest, or ziche leek trade theek'n and improve the land?" And thus they despise what they ought to test by experiment.

Farmers are proverbially a prejudiced and unreasoning race; reflecting but little on the connexion of causes and effects, so that it is no great wonder that they overlock the advantages of a large crop produced by the application of a very small quantity of strong manure. But it is strange that your scientific correspondent should not perceive them, seeing there are few more shrewd and acute reasoners than be. "It produces a good crop, but does not do much to enrich the soil." This is little better than nonsense, and, therefore, utterly unworthy of Mr. J. Prideaux. This logic must be tried a little. A good crop of vegetable matter, turnips to wit, if properly managed, does much to enrich the soil upon which it grows. A very small quantity of strong artificial manure will produce a good crop of turnips; therefore, a small quantity of strong artificial manure will enrich the soil. No deduction can be clearer than this. It is true, the artificial manure itself does not directly enrich the land, but it produces that which does enrich it, namely, a good crop of turnips; and, according to a good old maxim, "the cause of the cause, is the cause of the thing caused." Once more. The land is enriched, the turnips make the dung for enriching it, and the artificial manure produces the turnips. How this view of the matter escaped Mr. P. I know not; however, some good will probably result from it, in that it has afforded me an opportunity and a motive to excite attention to his instructive and useful writings. And I trust it may also put him more on his guard against setting down anything having the slightest tendency to encourage the prejudices of a notoriously prejudiced class.

Artificial manures have already done much, and there is no doubt that in conjunction with thorough draining they will yet effect much more. Ladies apply bone dust to their flower pots-they are covered with flowers. Gardeners apply it to their onion beds-they are covered with onions. Farmers apply it to their arish fallows, and, lo! they are covered with turnips. And turnips so cultivated are hoed and kept clean from weeds at half the ordinary expense. Stall-dung begets weeds, especially in wet seasons. Besides, the dung may be applied to the thin land for corn with much advantage, improving the grain, and at the same time enriching the soil. Whatever a farmer forgets, he ought to bear this always in mind-that whatever manure increases the weight of his crops, must ultimately, with good management, improve his land. The dropping and rotting of the leaves of a good crop of turnips adds to the humus of the soil, and thereby improves its condition. A heavy crop of turnips is generally followed by a good crop of barley and seeds; and these being consumed on the land by all sorts of stock, will still further increase the humus by which the soil is enriched.

Hamas is rotten, or, as chemists call it, decomposed vegetable substance, and the more of this is applied to the soil the richer it will become. But Mr. P. can treat this subject scientifically (which I cannot) and otherwise much more ably than I, who am but an old farmer; and I therefore cheerfully leave it to him, apologizing for presuming to criticise, and at the same time thanking him heartily for his able writings for the instruction of farmers, for we all need it more or less, whether great or small; and I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Oct. 1, 1842. AN OLD FARMER,

REPORT

OF THE INSPECTORS OF FARMS AND CROPS TO THE LIVERPOOL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT THEIR RECENT MEETING.

The following is the substance of the report made to the committee by Messrs. Robertson and Pemberton, the inspectors of farms and crops :

Having already reported to the committee and other members of the society who have attended this meeting, the various particulars required from us as to the crops and cultivations of those farms, the occupiers of which are candidates for the society's prizes, it now remains to us to make a few remarks upon the state and progress of agricul ture in the district generally. In doing so, we would first acknowledge the goodness of Divine Providence in graciously giving us a season so favourable for all the operations of the farmer, and such as we do not remember to have had for the last sixteen years. Corn has been better ripened than usual, and the gathering accomplished earlier, the harvest being, with few exceptions, completed by the second week in September. The prospect of having good bread must be a subject of thankfulness, not only to the farmer, but to every member of the community.

Your inspectors have pleasure in stating that the under-draining of land continues on the increase, and although much has already been done, and is now doing, very much still remains to be done. The establishment of draining tile manufactories in various parts of the district, and the moderate price at which tiles may now be purchased, are great inducements both to landowners and occupiers to continue this system of improvement. Draining with broken stones, and with cinders, is also carried on to a great extent, more particularly in situations where these materials are easily obtained, and answers remarkably well. The advantage of draining is felt in another way. Being ge nerally done during the winter months, it affords employment for labourers at a time when the farmer would probably have nothing else for them to do, thereby rendering a great service to the poor man's family, and probably keeping them from the parish. Men of experience are engaged upon some estates solely for the purpose of superintending the draining. The landlord in these cases pays the whole expence, and charges the tenants what he considers a fair per centage on the outlay. The practice is much to be commended. We believe the noble patron of this society was the first to begin it in this neighbourhood. The new system of cutting the drains in a longitudinal direction, as recommended by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, in Scotland, seems to be obtaining favour. A portion of the work of excavating can be performed by the plough, and a consequent saving of expense effected.

The subsoil-plough has been so little used in the district of this society, that your inspectors cannot report either favourably or otherwise of its effects at present.

The claimants upon large farms are more numerous this year than usual, and the management and cultivation of the land is of a very superior order; very different, indeed, to what it was when the Liverpool Agricultural Society was first established.

The marling of land is less frequently met with than formerly, other manures of a lighter charac

ter being preferred. An objection has also been started in some places, and not without good ground, that the permanent damage done by making pits is, in some instances, equal to the temporary benefit conferred on the soil by the application of marl.

In the laying down of land to grass we observe great improvement, both in the ploughing and preparation of the surface, and also in the description of the seeds sown.

Reservoirs for the reception of dung water are becoming more general, and many of them are proving useful adjuncts to the fariner's other means of improvement.

In the planting of new hedges your inspectors regret to say little progress is making-at the same time they are well aware there are many places in the district where they are much required, and would, if made, prove a great convenience, if not an ultimate saving. One great obstacle to the farmer undertaking much of this work is, the expence of protecting the young quicksets, which require to be fenced with rails or hurdles for at least four or five years after planting.

The cutting and laying of hedges is not so much practised, nor so well done, as might be wished. The prize given by the Right Honourable Lord Lilford, to whom the society is much indebted, has not always been claimed; and when it has, the competitors have never been numerous. His lordship's agent, Mr. Selby, of Atherton, having a desire to see the work performed more scientifically, has sent for an experienced man from Northamptonshire, who has already cut and laid a considerable length of fencing in a first-rate manner.

The crops of wheat have generally proved thin upon the ground this year, which is chiefly attributable to the unfavourable weather in October and November when the seed was sown: the grain, however, is finer and better than usual, and, we think, upon the whole, the yield will not be less than what is generally described as an average crop. Oats are also a good sample, but we do not calculate on more than an average quantity. Barley we consider much better, although but little is grown in this district. Beans are moderately well podded and a fair average crop.

The second crop of clover is good, and the weather has, fortunately, proved fine for gathering it, which has rarely been the case of late years. It is hoped this crop will make up in some measure for the farmer's deficient hay crop.

Potatoes have grown very luxuriantly this year and are likely to prove better in quality and greater in quantity than usual; yet some little rot is preceptible.

From what your inspectors have seen this season mangel wurzel is becoming less cultivated, and yet it must be acknowledged there is no green crop succeeds better upon peat soils.

The growth of Swedish turnips is very much on the increase; nearly all the early potatoe ground is now planted with this valuable root as a second crop, the greatest part of which have been transplanted from the seed bed.

An unusual quantity of land is also sown with this and other kinds of turnips, and we think the quantity produced in the district of this society is more than quadrupled since the establishment of the society in 1830. The mildew has, unfortunately, made its appearance, and the crops will consequently, be more or less deteriorated.

Having only met with the application of the new

manure Guano, in a few instances, and that only in this year, your inspectors are not able to speak decidedly of the permanent good which is likely to be effected by it. Appearances are at present in its favour. It is doubtful, however, whether it will ever be extensively used, unless it can be obtained at a more moderate price than what it has hitherto been sold at.

LIME AS A FERTILISER.

(TO THE EDITOR OF THE WEST BRITON.) SIR,-I omitted in my last on bone-dust, the reaction of the ammonia produced, on the phosphate of lime this produces, in the damp soil, carbonate of lime and phosphate of ammonia - the latter a very soluble salt, entering readily into the sap, and acting both by its acid and alkali.

"A young farmer" will allow for my hesitating to send this last week, after occupying so much of your previous number. The use of lime is perhaps the most important problem of agricultural chemistry. That it is not yet clearly explained, even by the multitude of known facts and experiments relating to it, will be a reason for diffidence in our conclusions; but by no means for discouragement in our research. On the contrary, the more obscure and the more important to understand, the greater the call for diligent investigation.

The arguments, pro. and con., are of course too extensive for communications of this kind, and may exercise the logic of your correspondent and his associates the leading facts and inferences concisely stated will be quite long enough for your columns, and give the reader a more perspicuous view of the question.

The first step of the enquiry how lime acts, is to ascertain what it does.

A. It enters into the composition of plants, and of course of the soils on which they grow. Lime in 1000lb. each of

Wheat. Barley. Oats. Potatoes. Turnips. 0.8lbs. 6

Straw and Tops}

1.1

0.9

0.3

1.5

whilst we add to the soil 100 to 200 imperial bushels per acre, or more, with evident advantage. See below (1).

B. It tends to loosen clays, and render them drier; whilst on light sandy soils, it produces a binding and moistening effect (9). Wet, stiff, and humus soils requiring much larger quantities than light soils containing little humus (2).

C. It corrects acid and hurtful ingredients in the soil; kills worms, insects, and some weeds and germs (7); must not, therefore, be brought into contact with corn and other seeds in quantity sufficient to endanger their germination. water is said to kill grass (7), and it acts wastefully (2) upon dung, unless first well mixed in with the soil.

Lime

D. It converts heath and moss into pasture; renders herbage closer, firmer, more palatable and nutritious; and is said to prevent the rot and foot rot in sheep feeding on such herbage (1, 2, 3, 7).

E. In arable, it increases the crops (1, 2, 3, 5), and ripens them earlier (8).

F. Produces heavy crops in some cases where

dung will not (1, 2, 8), but not many such crops in succession (4).

G. Gives better ear and grain than dung alone, and never lays the corn (10).

H. In too large proportion to mould or dung reduces fertility, drying up the plant; lime and dung must be applied alternately (4).

I. Renders humus, &c., soluble and effective, thus exciting rich soils and exhausting poor ones (2, 3, 4).

K. Excites heavy clays and sour moulds, producing better crops, as well in quality as in quantity (6, 7, 8).

Besides many effects of less importance, referable to the same principles, and perhaps others which I may have failed to recollect or refer to.

From these observations, compared with its known chemical properties, we infer that lime

FEEDS THE PLANT.

1. Directly in supplying the quantity of lime necessary for its healthy growth; which, however, is so small a proportion (see A) of the quantity beneficially employed, that we must look for other more extensive effects.

2. Indirectly by acidifying humus (5), and rendering it soluble; and by promoting the decomposition of dead roots, and other organic matters (F) generating soluble compounds, and fertilizing gases (C) as carbonic acid, ammonia, and some others, most of which are taken up by the moisture of the soil, and enter the sap by the roots, with the humate of lime and other soluble organic matters produced; thus supplying the plant with organic ingredients. 3. Also indirectly, by decomposing the insoluble alkaline silicates, and some other salts; thus giving them the solubility requisite for being taken up by the roots, and supplying the sap with alkalies and other requisite inorganic matters.

4. Of course, by thus bringing all these substances into use, it must gradually exhaust them, unless replaced; hence the danger of overliming. Without humus, and probably nitrogen, lime seems to dry up the plant.

5. Further indirectly, its alkalescent property, disposing the soil to absorb oxygen, thus acidifies, besides the humus and carbonaceous matters; also nitrogen (producing nitrates), which not only enters into the plant, but powerfully promotes its appropriation of other organic elements, both from the sap and from the air. This effect of lime is, however, very slow, unless under particular circumstances.

ACTS ON THe Soil.

6. Thoroughly pervading it (when properly applied), its slaking quality making it easy to spread and mix, and its solubility in water diffusing it Even the carbonate of lime is soluble generally. in the water of the soil, by aid of the carbonic acid generated there, or brought down by the rain and dew. By this solubility it is gradually washed down by the rains, &c., and of course lost to the soil in course of years.

7. Its alkalescent property destroys hurtful ingredients, neutralising acids, and decomposing salts of iron, manganese, and alumina (C), rendering the oxides insoluble, and subjecting them to peroxidation, when they are rather useful than otherwise; while the acids, generally sulphuric, phosphoric, or humic, combining with the lime, produce well known fertilisers, gypsum, bone earth, &c. Its solubility also enables it to follow and kill

some worms, insects, weeds, and germs; of course it may also kill or damage our seeds and young plants, if incautiously applied.

8. Its strong chemical affinities thus inducing a variety of combinations and decompositions, liable again to changes from wet and dry, heat and cold, keep the soil in continual chemical activity, evolving electricity, one of the most active promoters of vegetation. The rich verdure following a thunder storm is well known. These electrical re actions of the soil probably contribute, with the drying tendency of the lime (H) to forward the ripening.

9. All these results are produced the most effectively by lime in its caustic state : its activity diminishing in proportion as it absorbs carbonic acid, but the property of loosening stiff soils (B) continues when it is quite saturated and mild.

10. Lime is said to increase the ear, and never to lay the corn (G), but it appears to dry it up where organic manures are deficient (H); this is a remarkable distinction from the nitrogenous fertilisers, which, in excess, produce a deep green, rank vegetation, running to leaf and straw, producing little ear, and laying before harvest. Thus they appear to correct each other. The examination of this difference is not the least interesting part of our present enquiry.

Nitrogen (in its general fertilizing compoundammonia) promotes vital transformations in the sap; hence rapid appropriation of organic elements, and secretion of vegetable constituents; the plant becomes deep green, and grows luxuriantly.

Lime seems to produce re-actions in the soilsupplying the sap with inorganic as well as organic ingredients where it enters the root; but not exciting the vital transformations in the leaf, &c. Hence it will not produce rank vegetation, but hardens the straw, and sends up materials for the

rain.

Hence, if the ammonia (or nitrogen) is in excess, the straw runs up deep green and soft-if the lime be in excess, pale and hard, or even dry, from over dosing with mineral constituents. But when both are present in due proportions, with the other requisite ingredients, luxuriance in growth, and firmness of texture are cowned with heavy ears. This brings us back to the question in my last-What is it to limit the quantity of our manures, and the consequent production, when they are applied in due proportions to their respective functions? Twelve quarters of wheat have been grown upon an acre; where lies the improbability of such a produce becoming not extraordinary? Lime we have plenty, for ages; and thousands of tons of ammoniacal matters are yearly washed away in sewerage.

I am, sir, &c.,

Plymouth, Nov. 9th, 1842.

J. PRIDEAUX.

PRICES OF CATTLE AND LIVE STOCK IN THE OLDEN TIMES.

From Bishop Fleetwood's Chronicom Preciosum, we draw the following curious particulars as to the prices of stock, &c., in England in the olden time: -In King Ina's laws, which were made betwixt 712 and 727 (A. D.), it is said that an ewe with her lamb, is worth 1s. till thirteen nights after Eas.

ter. About the year 986 a palfrey was sold at 10s: In the Senatus Consulta de Mouticolis, in the time of King Ethelred, about the year 1000, if a horse be lost, the compensation must be 30s.; a mare or colt of a year old, 20s.; a mule or young ass, at 12s.; an ox at 30d.; a cow, 24d.; a swine, 8d.; a sheep, 1s.; a goat at 11d. (Note, that this is Saxon money, 5d. to the shilling, and 48s. to the pound). In the laws of Henry I., cap. 76, forty sheep are valued at 11. About the year 1145, the tenants of a place was to pay yearly 20s., or seven oxen each worth 3s. In 1185, the tenant of Shireborn are by custom to pay either 2d. or four hens, which they will. And by the custom of Beleshall they are to have a ram or 8d. (In the preface to King Athelstan's laws, a ram was at 4d). In or about 1217, when the king came to Redbourn, the camerarious (receiver of rents) of St. Alban's lost three good horses, two asses, and a good new cart; all of which were worth at least 50s. About 1232, the abbot of St. Alban's going a journey, and attended with six esquires on horseback, agrees, that if the horses (bired ones) die on the way, he will give for each horse, 10s.; and the horses are to be strong and handsome. In 1280, a swan was valued at 3s. 4d.; s duck at 1d. In 1298, at Scarborough, Yorkshire, the price of an ox was 6s. 8d.; a cow, 58.; a heifer, 28.; and a sheep, 1d.

In 1299 was made an act of common council for prices of victuals to be sold at London, by consent of the king and the nobility; and, as to poultry, it was as follows:-A fat cock, 14d.; two pullets, 14d.; a fat capon, 24d.; a goose, 4d.; a mallard, 1d.; a partridge, 14d.; a pheasant, 4d.; a heron, 6d.; a plover, 1d.; a swan, 3s.; a crane, 1s.; two woodcocks, 14d. A fat lamb from Christmas to Shrovetide, 1s. 4d.; for all the year after, 4d. In 1302, in London, the price of a bull was 7s. 4d; a cow, 6s.; a" fat muttun," 1s.; a ewe sheep, 8d. 1.; a capon, 2d.; a cock or hen, 1d.

Amongst other purchases for the feast which Ralph de Borne, prior of St. Augustine's, Canterbury, made on his installation day (in which it appears that he paid very great rates for many portions of his bill of fare, considering the times) we find the following: -30 ox carcases, 271. or 18s. each; 100 hogs, 161. or 3s. 2 d. each; 200" muttons," 301. or 3s. each; 1000 geese, 16l. or about 3 d. each; 500 capons and hens, 61.5s. or 3d. each; 473 pullets, 31. 14s. or 1d. each; 200 pigs, 5l. or 6d. each; 24 swans, 71. or 5s. 10d. each; 600 rabbits, 157. or 6d. each (there is some mistake here); 16 shields of brawn, 31. 5s. or 4s. Od. each; 9,600 eggs, 4l. 10s. or about 9 for a penny.

In 1314, according to Stow, the prices fixed by parliament were:-A stalled, or corn-fed ox, 17. 48.; a grass-fed ox, 16s.; a fat stalled cow, 12s.; an ordinary cow, 10s.; a fat mutton, unshorn (corn fed), 1s. 8d.; a fat goose in the city, 3d., but everywhere else, 24d.; a fat capon in the city, 24d., elsewhere, 2d.; a fat hen in the city, 14d., elsewhere, 1d.; 2 chickens in the city 14d., elsewhere, 1d.; in the city 3, elsewhere 4, pigeons for 1d.; in the city 20, elsewhere 24, eggs for 1d. But, notwithstanding this act of parliament, things could not be purchased at these rates; for people would not bring them to market (and that is a thing that parliaments cannot remedy), and so the king was fain to revoke the former act, and leave people to sell as they could (for a trade will do as it can, and never be forced one way or other.)-[Bishop Fleetwood would have made a good free trader in our days.]

In 1326, 12 hens were sold at 1s. 6d.; the cock and 13 hens, at 1s. 7d. Eight "porkers" and a half,

at 15s.; a cock at 1d. and 3 hens 44d. In 1336, a fat 0x, 6s. 8d.; a fat sheep, 6d. to 8d.; six pigeons for 1d.; a fat goose, 2d.; a pig, 1d. In 1343, oxen, 8s. each; in 1344, a cow, 5s.

In 1348, H. Knighton, who lived at Leicester, says, that in the pestilence things were sold for almost nothing. A horse, worth 40s., was sold for 6s. 8d.; a good fat ox at 4s. ; a cow, 1s.; a heifer or steer, 6d.; a fat mutton, 4d.; an ewe, 3d.; a lamb, 2d.; a hog, 5d.; a stone of wool, 9d. In 1349, a fat ox was sold in London for 6s. 8d. In 1361, two hens for a penny; in 1363, a widow is to pay four hens or 4d. in money, and 12 hogs were valued at 18s. or 1s. 6d. each.

In 1407, in a computus relating to the prior and canons of Burcester, Oxfordshire, the price paid for a cow is stated at 78.-for the calf of that cow, 1s. 8d.; for the calf of a cow that was somewhat weak, 1s.; for five calves, 10s. 8d. or nearly 2s. 1d. each: for a cow and her calf, 7s. 6d.; two oxen, 1l. 6s. 8d.; one ox, 11s. 6d,, a calf, 1s. 7d. In 1473, a ram, 8d. In 1425, a colt, 8s.; five ox hides, 12s.; two cow hides, 2s. 7d.; three cow hides, 4s. 8d. ; 16 calf skins, 2s.; 21 lambs, 4s.; 38 sheep skins, of two years old, 9s. ; 23 tods of pure wool, 10l. 18s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. the tod; 20 pullets, 1s. 8d.; a quarter of an ox, to salt, 1s. 4d.; for a bay horse, for the prior's stable, 17. 6s. 8d; two colts, 9s.; eight woodcocks, for a present, 1s. In 1426, five oxen were appraised at 3s. 4d. each; six cows at 28. 8d. each; three horses at Ss. each. In 1444, six calves, 28. each; eight porkers, 3s. each without the head; 40 geese, 3d. each: 31 dozen pigeons, at 44d. per dozen; others at 54d. and 6d. per dozen; an ox, 1. 11s. 8d.; eight cygnets or young swans, 3s. each; a flitch of bacon, 1s. 4d.; four oxen (probably young and lean), 13s. each; two plough oxen, 1. 3s. In 1445, 24 bullocks and heifers, at 5s. per head. In 1449, 15 sheep at 2s. 54d. each; seven bogs at 1s. 114d. each.

"In 1533 (says Stow) it was enacted that butchers should sell their beef and mutton by weight; beef for a halfpenny the pound, and mutton for three farthings; which being devised for the great commodity (accommodation) of the realm (as it was thought), has proved far otherwise. For at that time (1553) fat oven were sold for 26s. 8d.; fat wethers for 3s. 4d.; fat calves for the like price; a fat lamb for 12d. The butchers of London sold penny pieces of beef, for the relief of the poor; every piece 24lb. and sometimes 3lb. for a penny: and 13, some. times 14 of these pieces for 12d.; mutton, 8d. the qr.; and a cwt. of beef for 4s. 8d. What price it hath grown to since it needeth not to be set down. At this time also, and not before, were foreign butchers (butchers not apprenticed in or living in London) permitted to sell their flesh in Leadenhall market of London." In 1558, a good sheep, 2s. 10d.

In 1574, beef, at Lammas (August), so dear that a stone came to 1s. 10d. In 1595, a hen's egg, 1d.; or at best three eggs for 2d.

Libros