compelled to purchase a peace. After Valentinian, there was a succession of princes, or rather of names, for the events of their reigns do not deserve a detail. The empire of the west came to a final period in the reign of Romulus, the son of Orestes, who had the sirname of Augustulus bestowed on him.

12. Odoacer, prince of the Heruli, subdued Italy, and spared the life of Augustulus, on condition that he resigned the throne, A. D. 476. There is a period of 1224 years from the building of Rome to the extinction of the western empire. Its ruin was the inevitable consequence of its greatness. The extension of its dominion relaxed the vigour of its frame; the victorious legions were infected by the vices of the nations which they had subdued ;-their commanders were corrupted by foreign luxuries ;-patriotic ardour was supplanted by selfish interest ;—the martial spirit was debased purposely by the emperors who dreaded its effects on themselves;-and the whole mass, thus enervated, fell an easy prey to a torrent of barbarians.

13. Theodoric, prince of the Ostrogoths, afterwards deservedly named the Great, attempted the recovery of Italy, Zeno, emperor of the east having promised him the sovereignty as the reward of his success. The standard of Theodoric was attended by the whole nation of Ostrogoths. After repeated conquests, he compelled Odoacer, to surrender all Italy. The Romans, who had but tasted of happiness under Odoacer, were peculiarly fortunate in having Theodoric for their ruler. He possessed every talent and virtue of a sovereign; his equity and clemency rendered him a blessing to his subjects;-he made alliance with the Franks, Visigoths, Burgundians, and Vandals ;and he left a peaceable sceptre to his grandson Athalaric. The mother of this infant ruled with wisdom and moderation.

On the decline of the Roman empire, an almost total ignorance of the useful arts had taken possession of the western world. A barbarous, illiterate people, who in hostile troops then poured themselves into the western provinces, gave the first blow to learning. Academies were ruined, libraries burnt, and the learned compelled to shut up their schools, and relinquish their studies. Nor were the Christian priests less concerned in the destruction

of letters. When paganism prevailed, they received continual injuries from the great philosophers; and even now found them very troublesome enemies. They not only armed themselves against those teachers, but endeavoured to forbid their writings, of whatever sort, as dangerous and pernicious. Both hastened the destruction of letters: -yet this age produced some learned men. Among the Christians, Sulpicius Severus, Cyril of Alexandria, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Isidore, Sidonius Apollinaris, &c. were of the first class. The most celebrated among the pagans were Zosimus and Olympiodorus.

He

14. Justinian, the ruler of the eastern empire, was a prince of mean ability, vain, capricious, and tyrannical. The Roman name, however, arose, for a time, from its abasement by the merit of his generals, the most renowned of whom was Belisarius, the support of his throne. was one of the greatest and most successful generals that ever lived;-he subdued the Vandals and restored Africa to the Roman empire, after it had been separated for more than one hundred years ;—he refused the kingdom of the Goths; and his arms and policy composed the disputes of the performers in the circus and amphitheatre. These were the factions of the green and light-blue, (colours worn by the performers) which had assumed a serious appearance, and threatened to hurl Justinian from the throne. Belisarius wrested Italy from its Gothic sovereign, and once more restored it for a short space to the dominion of its antient masters. The heroic Totila, the leader of the Goths, besieged and took the city of Rome, but forbore to destroy it at the request of Belisarius. This great man was compelled to evacuate Italy, and on his return to Constantinople, the emperor ordered his eyes to be put out, and he lay at the foot of a bridge, soliciting alms in these words, Date obolum Belisario.

He was superseded in the command of the armies by the eunuch Narses, who defeated Totila in a decisive engagement, in which the Gothic prince was slain. He invited the Lombards to avenge his injuries, who over-run and conquered the country, A. D. 568.

The eastern empire was particularly flourishing in the reign of Justinian. The emperors themselves accelerated the ruin of the empire by their luxury and indolence. The

Bulgarians claimed part of the empire, as did the Saracens, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cilicia, and the neighbouring regions; and afterwards over-running the rest of the Roman world, they laid siege to Constantinople itself. These were followers of Mohammed; who, actuated by fanatic rage, believed the whole world was destined for them, and therefore attacked the neighbouring nations with irresistible fury. When the empire could scarcely defend itself against these Saracens, Constantinople was taken by Baldwin, earl of Flanders. There appeared also another emperor at Trebisond, that city and the regions round it being torn from the rest of the Roman empire, which was at last totally destroyed by the Turks. They first, in the reign of Heraclius, passing through the Caspian Straits, wandered far and wide over the east, embraced the Mohammedan religion and were divided into several principalities. But the rest being broken and extinct, the posterity of Othoman, or Othman, alone took the lead, and ever since the Turkish sovereigns have assumed the name of Othomans. These Othoman princes, commonly called Turks, having subdued the greatest part of the provinces possessed by the Saracens, swallowed up the rest of the Roman empire, and Constantinople was taken by them in the year 1453, which has ever since been the imperial seat of the Turkish emperors.

Thus terminated the fourth or Roman empire; which exceeded all its predecessors in power and duration. All the modern states and kingdoms, (a few only excepted) may be accounted but fragments torn from the body of this immense empire.

Select Books on Roman History.

Hooke's Roman History, 11 vols. 8vo. Ferguson's Roman Republic, 4 vols. 8vo. Vertot's Revolutions of Rome, 3 vols. 8vo. Rollin's Roman History, 10 vols. 8vo. Crevier's Continuation, 10 vols. 8vo. Goldsmith's Roman History, 2 vols. 8vo. or Mavor's Rome, 3 vols. 18mo. is well adapted for those who have not leisure to enter into deep researches. Adam's Roman Antiquities, 8vo. Lempriere's Classical Dictionary, 8vo.

CHAP. II.-MODERN HISTORY.

SECT. I.-ENGLAND.

There is no nation whose history admits of so many æras as that of England. We shall, for the sake of brevity, consider it under the following heads: I. Before the time of the Saxons. II. The Saxon line. III. The Danish. IV. The Norman. V. The Plantagenets. VI. The Houses of Lancaster and York. VII. Of Tudor. VIII. Of Stuart. IX. Of Orange. X, Of Brunswick.

I. Before the time of the Saxons.

1. It is highly probable, that England derived its first inhabitants from the Celta of Gaul. The authentic history of this kingdom commences with the first Roman invasion, and we learn from Cæsar and Tacitus, that the country was at that period, in a state very remote from barbarism. It was divided into a number of small independent sovereignties, each prince having a regular army, and a fixed revenue. The manners, language, and religion of the people were the same with those of the Gallic Celtæ. The last was the Druidical system, whose influence pervaded every department of the government, and, by its power over the minds of the people, supplied the imperfection of laws.

2. Britain was invaded by the Romans under Julius Cæsar, about fifty-two years before the birth of Christ, bat he made no conquests. Claudius, and his generals Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces, after thirty pitched battles with the natives in the years 43 and 44; and the conquest was completed by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, in 85. In 410, the Romans being no longer able to defend so distant a province, relinquished it to the old inhabitants. The Britons, conscious of their inability to protect themselves against their northern neighbours, had, therefore, recourse to their conquerors: and the Romans, beside occasionally sending over a legion to the aid of the Britons, assisted them in rebuilding the wall of Antoninus, which extended between the friths of Forth and Clyde. This wall was esteemed by the Romans a ne

cessary barrier, first against the Caledonians, and afterwards against the Scots and Picts.

3. The Scots and Picts, probably, had their origin from two tribes of native Britons, who, at different times, had fled from the dominion of the Romans. They are allowed, however, to have been brave and warlike adventurers, who often invaded the Roman territories, and were greatly superior to the now dastardly and dispirited Britons. These two nations or tribes no sooner heard of the final departure of the Romans, than one party crossed the frith of Forth, in boats made of leather,—while another attacked with fury the Roman wall, which the Britons had repaired for their defence, but which they abandoned on the first assault, leaving their country a prey to the enemy. The Scots and Picts made dreadful havoc among the fugitives; and meeting with no opposition, they laid waste all the southern part of the island with fire and sword. In the following year, they were visited by famine. The miserable Britons, in this frightful extremity, had once more recourse to Rome. They wrote to Etius, then consul the third time, that memorable letter entitled The Groans of the Britons. 'We know not,' say they, even which way to flee. Chased by the barbarians to the sea, we have only left us the choice of two deaths; either to perish by the sword, or be swallowed up by the waves." What answer they received is uncertain; but it is well known they obtained no assistance, Rome being then threatened by Attila, the most terrible enemy that ever invaded the empire.

4. The Britons, amid all their calamities, had one con solation; they had embraced Christianity: a religion which above all others, teaches the endurance of misfor tunes,-which encourages its votaries to triumph in adversity, and inspires the soul with joy in the hour of afflic tion. Many fled to Gaul, and settled in the province of Armorica, to which they gave the name of Britany; part submitted to the Scots and Picts; and part, collecting courage from despair, sallied from their woods and caves upon the secure and roving invaders, cut many of them to pieces, and obliged the rest to retire into their own country. But the enemy, threatening to return next season with superior forces, the distressed Britons, by the advice of Vortigern, Prince of Danmonium, called over to their as