tortion by tallage, export duties, purveyance. The country to a great extent still covered by forests and fens. The superior ranks, according to Robert of Gloucester (A.D. 1290), continued to use Norman French.

PARLIAMENTS AND LAWS.-(See under the "King's Character.") The First Statute of Westminster, Feb. 1275,

which "deserves the name of a code" (Lord Campbell),

for securing strict administration of justice, and freedom of elections, and guarding the rights of religious corporations.

:

Coroners first appointed and the statute Peine forte et dure passed, for punishment of persons refusing to plead by placing heavy weights on their body and starving them (not abolished till 1772).

Benefit of Clergy legally recognised a criminal liable to execution should only be branded in the hand if he could read, and ecclesiastics were exempted from the jurisdiction of the civil courts (see "Constitutions of Clarendon," under Laws of Henry II.): modified in 1512.

The Statute of Gloucester, 1278, for inquiry into the titles of estates and securing the Royal revenues.

The Statute of Mortmain, 1279, prohibited lands or tenements being made over to religious houses without the Royal consent, under pain of forfeiture. (Religious bodies being dead in the eyes of the law, their lands were said to be held "in mortua manu," in dead hand.') The Second Statute of Westminster, or statute De Donis, 1285,

6

a law for the maintenance of the great families" (Creasy), defeated evasions of the Statute of Mortmain (ecclesiastics having set up fictitious titles to land, and, through the defendants' collusion, procured judgment in default) by requiring the claimants to prove their title. The feudal privileges of the suzerain were secured by the statute Quia Emptores (“Inasmuch as the purchasers," &c.) of 1290: when a freeman sold his lands the buyer was to hold of the suzerain (and not by subinfeudation), who thus was ensured his fees from wardship, escheats, &c.

The Statute of Winchester, 1284, provided for an effectual system of" watch and ward" throughout the kingdom.

The Statute of Merchants (or of Acton-Burnell), 1283, provided for the more easy recovery of debts.

The Confirmatio Chartarum, or Confirmation of the Magna Charta and the Forest Charter, wrung from the king by Parliament, Nov. 1297, required Parliament's consent to the levying of any tax.

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It added another pillar to our Constitution not less important than the Great Charter itself." "I do not know that England has ever produced any patriots to whose memory she owes more gratitude than" Bohun and Bigod (Hallam).

The reputed Statute De Tallagio non Concedendo (On not granting Tallage), 1305,-Tallage not to be taken without consent of Parliament, and a fair price to be given within reasonable time for articles taken by Purveyors,-is

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probably not a genuine statute, but a mere kind of abstract or epitomized "translation of the Confirmation of Charters" (Blackstone).

The Statute Quo Warranto, 1290,-any person or corporation might be summoned by writ to explain "by what warrant" office or franchise is exercised.

Ecclesiastics prohibited from sending money to their superiors

abroad.

Chief Justiciaryship finally abolished. The Justices in Eyre become, by commissions from the Crown, Judges of Assize.

Taxes on personal property substituted for scutagegenerally Fifteenths on all movables.

In 1283 the Lords (at Shrewsbury), and the Commons (at Acton-Burnell), sat separately, owing to the trial of David of Wales by the Lords (see under "Henry III.”—Parliaments).

COMMERCE. Introduction of looking-glasses, spectacles, and windmills into England. The company of "Merchant Adventurers" formed, 1296, to improve woollen manufacture, and sell cloth abroad, especially at Antwerp. Charter granted to resident foreign merchants, a justiciary appointed for them in London, and jury on their trials to consist half of natives, half of foreigners. Incorporation of cordwainers, saddlers, and other guilds. INSTITUTIONS.-Merton College (founded at Malden, 1264) removed to Oxford, 1274.

ARCHITECTURE.

"Edward I. introduced a more splendid and convenient style of castles, containing many habitable towers with communicating apartments" (Hallam).

WARS AND BATTLES.-I. France, 1294—1297.

II. Wales conquered, 1276-1284, 1294.

III. Scotland, 1294-next reign: Berwick, 30 March 1296;

Dunbar, 27 April; Stirling, 11 Sep. 1297; Falkirk, 22 July 1298; Methven, 19 June 1306.

TREATIES.-1. Commercial Treaty with Flanders, 1274, --for export of English wool and for trade with the Flemings.

2. Treaty of Amiens, with France, 20 May 1303,-(1) Peace between France and England; (2) France to abandon the Scots, and England the Flemings.

EMINENT MEN.-Robert Burnell, chancellor; Bohun earl of Hereford; Bigod earl of Norfolk; John Balliol; Robert Bruce; Warenne earl of Surrey. Authors-Roger Bacon, d. 1292; the chronicler, Robert of Gloucester, d. 1285.

EDWARD II., "OF CARNARVON,"

8 JULY 1307-20 JAN. 1327.

Fourth but eldest sur

Born at Carnarvon, 25 April 1284. viving son of Edward I. and Eleanor of Castile. Married Isabella of France, 25 Jan. 1308, by whom he had two sons-Prince Edward (III.), and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall,—and two daughters-Joanna (wife of David II. of Scotland) and Eleanor (wife of Reginald count of Gueldres).

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'Edward II. unfortunately possessed no single quality to make us love or respect him. He was, in everything, the very opposite of his father, whose dying commands it was the first act of his reign to disobey. He was, seemingly, of an easy disposition; but his yielding temper was only weakness, and his semblance of good nature was rank selfishness; he was disposed to make friendships; but his fondness for his friends was so unnatural, so excessive, that he sacrificed to them his duty to his country and the respect of his subjects" (Longman).

After his enforced abdication, on 20 Jan. 1327, Edward II. was kept in close captivity: he was murdered 21 Sept. 1327, at Berkley Castle.

A.D.

1307. EDWARD II. (æt. 23) proclaimed at Carlisle, 8 July. Several of the Scottish barons do homage at Dumfries. The favourite Piers Gaveston is created earl of Cornwall, Aug. [The Swiss Republics established.] Edward II. appoints Aymer de Valence earl of Pembroke governor of Scotland, and returns to London, Dec.

1308. Edward married at Boulogne Isabella (daughter of Philip IV.) of France, 25 Jan.: is crowned with his queen at Westminster, 24 Feb.: obliged by the barons to banish.

A.D.

Gaveston, June: appoints Gaveston governor of Ireland. [The seat of the Papacy removed from Rome to Avignon in France.]

1309. Edward II., absolved by Pope Clement V. from his oath, recalls Gaveston: on the barons refusing to appear in Parliament to grant supplies; Gaveston again leaves the kingdom.

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1310. Parliament at Westminster appoints (as in 1216 and 1258) a committee for the administration, 'Ordainers," March, and procures confirmation of the Magna Charta. Edward II. retires to Berwick; is rejoined by Gaveston.

1311. Parliament again procures confirmation of Magna Charta, and banishes Gaveston on pain of death, Aug. [The Knights Templars suppressed by Pope Clement V. at the Council of Vienna, for alleged immorality.]

1312. The barons revolt under Thomas earl of Lancaster (the King's cousin): Edward II. sails to York: Gaveston surrenders in Scarborough castle, 19 May, and is hanged at Blacklowin, near Warwick, by Guy earl of Warwick, 19 June. The Scots massacre the English garrisons: Bruce burns Durham. Prince Edward (III.) born, 13 Nov. 1313. Edward II. and his Parliament are reconciled: he makes an ineffectual expedition to Scotland.

1314. Edward II. leads 100,000 men against Scotland; advances to relieve Stirling castle is totally defeated by Robert Bruce at Bannockburn, 24 June.

"The most complete overthrow that the military power of England has ever sustained" (Creasy). "The great and decisive battle of Bannockburn, which secured the independence of Scotland, fixed Bruce on the throne of that kingdom, and may be deemed the greatest overthrow that the English nation has ever received" (Hume).

Famine and plague follow this calamity.

1315. Edward Bruce (Robert's brother) lands in Ireland to aid the rebels. Act passed (from the famine) to fix the price of articles of food (repealed, Feb., 1316).

1316. The Irish rebels elect Edward Bruce king; they are defeated at Athenree, Aug.

"If Bruce's victory at Bannockburn in 1314 confirmed the independence of Scotland for centuries,, Phelim O'Connor's

A D.

defeat at Athenree in 1316 was almost equally decisive in establishing and in perpetuating Ireland's subjection" (Creasy).

The ecclesiastics present petitions (Articuli cleri) against the interference of the secular courts.

1317. Robert I. Bruce returns from his expedition to aid Edward Bruce and the Irish rebels.

1318. Edward Bruce is defeated at Dundalk, and beheaded by the English, 5 Oct. The Scots take Berwick, and

ravage the north of England.

1319. Two years' truce with Robert I. the Bruce, Dec. 1320. Promotion of the second Royal favourite, Hugh Spencer (or Despencer) to earldom of Winchester and other honours.

1321. Parliament at Westminster exiles Spencer and his family, several of the barons having risen in arms. Edward II.

storms Leeds Castle and advances to the North; recalls the Spencers.

1322. Edward II. defeats and takes prisoner his cousin Thomas earl of Lancaster at Borough bridge, 23 March: execution of Lancaster (at Pontefract castle) and many other barons: Roger Mortimer earl of March (or warden of the Welsh marches) imprisoned in the Tower. Parliament at York repeals statute of exile against the Spencers, April. Edward II. penetrates with an army to Fifeshire, Aug.

1323. Edward II. makes a 13 years' truce with Robert I. Bruce, 30 May.

1324. Roger Mortimer earl of March escapes, from the Tower, to France.

1325. Queen Isabella, with Prince Edward (III.), sent to negotiate with her brother, Charles IV. (the Fair) of France regarding Guienne, March. Treaty with France, Prince Edward doing homage for Guienne, May. Intrigue of Queen Isabella and the exiled Roger Mortimer earl of March they retire from the French court, along with

:

Prince Edward (at. 13), to Hainault. Treaty of Commerce concluded with the Republic of Venice.

1326. Isabella foments the disaffection of the barons in England.

Prince Edward (III.) betrothed to Philippa (daughter