A.D.

1234. De Burgh restored to his honours, and Des Roches re

moved.

1235. Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, inveighs against the encroachments of the Papacy and the errors of the preaching friars. Italian clergy patronised by Henry

III.

1239. Prince Edward (I.) born, 16 June.

1242. War in support of the Count de la Marche against France. Henry III. defeated at Taillebourg and Saintes :

truce for 5 years.

1244. Remonstrances of the Great Council against the king's extravagance (and again in 1248 and 1252).

1253. Henry III. ratifies the Magna Charta. Alfonso X. of Castile invades Guienne: is defeated: marriage treaty between prince Edward (I.) and Eleanor of Castile.

1257. Henry III. purchases from Pope Innocent IV. the Crown of Sicily for Prince Edmund, earl of Chester.

1258. From the famine and enormous taxation the barons under Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester (the king's brotherin-law), in Westminster Hall require the administration (as in 1215) to be entrusted to 24 peers (12 bishops and 12 barons), 2 May.

"This commission may rather be considered as attempts to ascertain by experiment the best mode of establishing Parliamentary control over the application of supplies and the appointment of the Royal advisers, than as arrangements intended to take a permanent place in the Constitution" (Mackintosh). The Mad Parliament * meets 11 June, and passes the Provisions of Oxford: Prince Edward (I.) takes oath to observe them.

1259. Peace with France by the Treaty of Westminster, 20 May. 1261. The Provisions of Oxford annulled by the Pope: Henry

III. takes possession of the Tower.

1263. [Alexander III. of Scotland overthrows great invasion of Norwegians at Largs.]

1264. St. Louis (IX.) of France, chosen arbiter between Henry III. and the barons, cancels the Provisions of Oxford, but requires observance of Magna Charta. The barons

*The word Parliament came from the Normans, being a translation of the Latin Colloquium.

A.D.

refuse to accept the decision: Civil War begins. Henry III. defeated and captured by De Montfort at Lewes, 13 May: Treaty, the Mise of Lewes, 14 May, for exchange of the king, broken by De Montfort, who keeps also Prince Edward (I.) and Richard's son. Llewellyn of Wales aids the insurgents. De Montfort, at Kenilworth, summons in the King's name the first Parliament with knights, citizens, and burgesses, Christmas.

1265. The Parliament meets, 20 Jan. Prince Edward (I.) escapes to Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester (now at enmity with De Montfort), Whitsunweek: De Montfort defeated and slain at Evesham, 4 Aug.

"The military power of the great baronial party was utterly broken" (Creasy).

Kenilworth Castle reduced, Nov. Parliament passes an amnesty, the Dictum, or Award of Kenilworth, Nov.

1267. Attempted revolt of the barons under the earl of Gloucester.

"Gradually the swell left behind by such tempests subsided, and, in no long time, quiet and security appeared to be so generally established, that the Prince could take up the cross' (Mackintosh).

1270. Prince Edward (I.) sets out for the Eighth Crusade. 1271. Prince Edward (I.) storms Nazareth.

1272. Henry III. (æt. 65) died at Bury St. Edmund's, 16 Nov.

STATE OF SOCIETY.-Tiles superseded thatch for houses. Gradual emancipation of villeins regardant, who obtained lands on villeinage tenure (copyhold). Movement against Church abuses under bishop Grosseteste of Lincoln. Night-watch established in London. Improvement of the Fine Arts in England: Italian artists and art patronised by Henry III. Robert Hood's Outlaws in Sherwood Forest, Nottingham. Exactions by the king, especially from the Jews:

"he canvassed for presents on such specious pretexts as to be counted the most sturdy beggar in the kingdom" (Mackintosh).

PARLIAMENTS AND LAWS.

"The intervention of such a reign was a very fortunate circumstance for public liberty, which might possibly have been crushed in its infancy, if an Edward had immediately succeeded to the throne of John " (Hallam).

Remonstrances of the Great Council against the king's extravagance, 1244, 1248, 1252. Six confirmations of Magna Charta. The Forest Charter, 1216, threw open all enclosures since the reign of Henry II. :

and was "designed to crush the flagitious system of oppression which prevailed in those favourite haunts of the Norman kings" (Hallam).

The Mad Parliament, June 11, 1258, passed the Provisions of Oxford-(1) Four knights to be elected to represent each county; (2) a sheriff to be annually elected for each county; (3) Parliament to meet thrice every year, in February, June, and October; (4) an account of the Public Money to be duly rendered.

Exportation of wool and importation of cloth forbidden by a Parliament at Oxford, 1261.

The first Parliament with knights, citizens, and burgesses (meeting with the barons in one house,

"but that they were ever intermingled in voting appears inconsistent with likelihood and authority") (Hallam),

summoned by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in the king's name, met 20 Jan. 1265. There were instances of representatives of counties being summoned to give advice even as early as the time of William I., the Conqueror (e.g., on Anglo-Saxon laws, 1070), but the representation of cities and towns was novel.

"There seems every reason to consider that from the year 1264, when De Montfort summoned them, the towns were regularly summoned as often as a Parliament was held, but that they only attended when there was a question of taxing them, and that it was only towards the end of Edward I.'s reign that they attended as a regular and essential part of every Parliament" (Brougham). "The reformation in question, as first affording proof from experience that liberty, order, greatness, power, and wealth are capable of being blended together in a degree of harmony which the wisest men before had not believed possible, will be held in everlasting remembrance" (Mackintosh).

The Dictum, or Award, of Kenilworth, Nov. 1266, granted an amnesty on the immediate submission of offenders against the king, except De Montfort's family, restored confiscated estates to their owners on payment of their value, and provided for observing the Charters.

The office of Chief Justice of the King's Bench substituted for that of Chief Justiciary, 1267. Trial by the modern Jury becoming common. The Chancellor's court, the Court of Chancery, had gradually gained a separate and distinct jurisdiction it administered the Civil Law (founded on the Roman

:

Law), and enforced rather the spirit than the letter of the law.

COMMERCE.-Introduction of the manufacture of linen and of leaden waterpipes, gold coins, and candles. Coal-beds found at Newcastle. Exportation of wool and importation of cloth forbidden, 1261. Merchants of Lombardy settle in London, 1229. The Hanseatic League (of several German towns for the promotion and protection of commerce) establishes the Steelyard (a factory of merchants from the Rhineland and the Baltic) in London, 1220, and is allowed to attend fairs in England, 1261.

"The English had also their factories on the Baltic coast as far as Prussia and in the dominions of Denmark" (Hallam).

INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES.-Mariner's Compass, invented by a Venetian. Magnifying-glasses and magic lantern by Roger Bacon, of Oxford,

"the old Franciscan friar who, six hundred years ago, appears to have had a fore-knowledge of gunpowder, steamboats, locomotives, telescopes, balloons, suspension-bridges, and other products of modern art" (Creasy). The sciences of Geography and Astronomy introduced into Europe by the Moors, 1220.

INSTITUTIONS.-University College (attributed to King Alfred, 872), 1249; Merton College (then at Malden), 1264; and Balliol College, 1265, Oxford. St. Peter's College, Cambridge, 1257.

ARCHITECTURE.-Westminster Abbey re-built. Completion of Wells and Salisbury cathedrals, the north transept of York Minster, and the choir of Lincoln. Windsor castle decorated. Several parish churches improved.

WARS AND BATTLES.-I. France. (1) Prince Louis in England, 1216-11 Sep. 1217: Lincoln, 20 May 1217; off Dover, 24 Aug. (2) 1224-1225. (3) 1230. (4) 1242-1259: Taillebourg, 1242; Saintes.

II. Castile, 1253.

III. The Eighth Crusade, 1270-1272: Nazareth, 1271.

IV. Civil Wars.—(1) 1264—1265: Lewes, 13 May, 1264; Evesham, 4 Aug. 1265. (2) 1267.

TREATIES.-I. France, 1, 2, and 5. II. Castile, 3. III. Insurgent Barons, 4.

1. Treaty of Kingston, with Prince Louis of France, 11 Sep. 1217, the French to evacuate England.

2. Treaty of Westminster, with France, 20 May 1259,Normandy to be ceded to France for Guienne, Poitou, and a sum of money.

3. Treaty with Castile, 1253,-(1), Peace concluded; (2), Prince Edward (I.) to marry Eleanor of Castile.

4. The Mise of Lewes, between Henry III. and insurgents under De Montfort, 14 May, 1264,-Henry III. and his brother Richard to be released in exchange for Prince Edward (I.) and Richard's son Henry.

5. Truces with France, 1225 and 1242.

EMINENT MEN.-Archbishop Stephen Langton, d. 1228; bishop Peter des Roches, of Winchester; William Mareschal, earl of Pembroke, d. 1219; chief justiciary, Hubert de Burgh; Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, d. 1265; De Clare, earl of Gloucester (father and son). Authors-Roger Bacon, d. 1292; the chroniclers Rishanger of St. Albans, Roger of Wendover, Robert of Gloucester, d. 1285, Matthew Paris, d. 1259.

EDWARD I., "LONGSHANKS,"

20 Nov. 1272-7 JULY 1307.

Born at Westminster 16 June, 1239. Eldest son of Henry III. and Eleanor of Provence. Married-(1), Eleanor of Castile, 1253, by whom he had 4 sons-John, Henry (both died in infancy), Alfonso (d. 1285), and Edward (II.) first Prince of Wales—and 9 daughters; and (2) Margaret of France, 1299, by whom he had 2 sons-Thomas earl of Norfolk, and Edmund earl of Kent,-and 1 daughter, Eleanor.

EDWARD I. was " a prince unequalled by any who had reigned in England since the Conqueror for prudence, valour, and success" (Hallam): but "the sensitive honour and the frank generosity of his disposition seem to have become cankered and impaired as he grew old" (Creasy).

He has been styled "the Greatest of the Plantagenets," and "the English Justinian: "

"Edward I. not only systematised and reformed the principles of English jurisprudence, but finally framed the courts for the administration of justice as they have subsisted for six centuries" (Lord Campbell). See under "Parliaments."

A.D.

1272. EDWARD I. (æt. 33), absent in Sicily on his return from the Eighth Crusade, is proclaimed, 20 Nov., by the