unassuming good work which it did; the light which it has thrown on the disposition of certain Governments towards the principles of neutrality in naval war, and the attitude of the British Government in defence of those principles; and the British proposal to abolish contraband of war-all these ensure to the Conference of 1907 that it will not be forgotten either in international law or in international politics.

At the head of this article I have placed the two sources which have made so early an appreciation of the Second Peace Conference possible. Mr Stead deserves the warmest thanks of all persons interested in international law and its progress for the zeal with which he conducted a daily journal during the four months of the session, and succeeded in publishing in its pages, in full or in abstract, most of the important documents submitted to or issuing from the Conference or its committees. In this he triumphed over the unwise and somewhat inconsistent officialism of the body, which, while admitting public discussion and voting, was at first unwilling to admit outsiders to a sufficient knowledge of what was being discussed and voted on. The result was probably due to the superior common-sense of the members as individuals to that displayed by the body, or by the diplomatic influences under which it began to act.

Next I have placed two works which belong, the former entirely and the latter in some degree, to the movement which brought about the Peace Conferences. The Arbiter in Council' shows wide reading and high purpose. It is put in the form of conversations between men of different professions, but its dominant point of view is that of the preacher, and the motives and restraints which it discusses are those which are felt by private persons in their affairs. It takes little note of the moral agencies by which nations are impelled, weak as they are in most individuals, but integrated in the action of masses, and made more intense by the sympathy which attends such integration. Sir Thomas Barclay attacks the subject from the technical side, but has great faith in the possibility of effecting much in a short time by skilful arrangements.

Then come three general treatises on international law, of which Dr Oppenheim's is a work of great merit, on the scale of Hall or of the English editions of Wheaton. We commend it highly to students, who will find in it abundant references to the latest continental literature on the subject. M. Mérignhac is one of the best of the younger men who are coming forward in France. The part of his work as yet published deals with the fundamental ideas of international law with a patient detail to which we are unaccustomed in this country in the treatment of the philosophical part of the subject. English students will do well to read it and reflect on it. Of my own work I can of course say nothing, except that it contains the compressed outcome of many years of study, and that the editor has kindly placed it among the books which are to head this article. With these I have named the book by Mr Atherley-Jones and Mr Bellot on 'Commerce in War' as being, like them, no offspring of any present movement or recent incidents. Its purpose is to provide a full exposition of the rules of international law which govern the commercial relations of the subjects of neutral and belligerent States.' This its limited scope has enabled it to do, with fuller quotations from treaties, ordinances, judgments, and the opinions of great jurists than could be found room for in a general treatise on international law.

Messieurs Smith and Sibley, Professor Holland and Dr Lawrence have all written with special reference to the Russo-Japanese war or to the Second Peace Conference when it was in prospect; and the choice of a subject for the Yorke prize, won by Mr Bentwich, may well have been made under similar impressions. The list is closed by the monumental Digest with which the enlightened liberality of the United States Government and the wellknown learning and accuracy of Mr Bassett Moore have enriched this department of literature. It would be a great gain if other countries would similarly open their records and make their contents accessible.

J. WESTLAKE.

Art. XI.-GREEK TEMPLES AND EARLY RELIGION.

1. Aegina, das Heiligtum der Aphaia. By A. Furtwängler, E. R. Fiechter, and H. Thiersch. Two vols. Munich: Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, 1906.

2. The Argive Heraum. By Charles Waldstein, with the cooperation of other scholars. Two vols. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1902 and 1905. 3. Die Archaische Poros-Architektur der Akropolis zu Athen. By Theodor Wiegand, in conjunction with W. Dörpfeld and others. Two vols. Cassel: Fisher and Co., 1904.

4. Primitive Athens as described by Thucydides. By Jane Ellen Harrison. Cambridge: University Press, 1906. 5. Life in Ancient Athens. By T. G. Tucker. London: Macmillan, 1907.

And other works.

THE temples of Greece may be divided into two principal classes, those which stood within or near the city walls, often crowning an ancient citadel rich in memories of the heroic age, and those which were in the open country, surrounded by groves and running water or high on the shoulder of some wild mountain. The former may be compared with Christian cathedrals, so many of which stand in old centres of Roman administration and seem to prolong the tradition of a long-vanished empire. The latter have a parallel in the monastic churches, placed far from cities among scenes of natural beauty, to which the whole countryside used to flock for worship and for merry-making at certain great festivals.

The temples standing in or near towns take precedence. Most of the sites with which the spade of the excavator has been busy in recent years have been sacred to goddessesDemeter at Eleusis, Athena at Athens and Lindus and Tegea, Hera at Samos, Artemis at Ephesus and Sparta. The name matters less than was formerly supposed. To her worshippers in each of these centres Hera or Artemis or Athena was 'The Goddess,' pre-eminent above all others, invoked upon all occasions and in all needs. It was only by degrees that distinct departments of activity were allotted to them, and it was only in the minds of Alexandrian mythographers that the process was ever

completed, that Artemis lost her interest in agriculture and devoted herself wholly to sport, and that Athena became a mere patroness of letters. One and all in early days they were mother-goddesses, and watched over the welfare of mother and young in the home and in the fold, givers of increase not only to man, but to his flocks and fields. It is true that male deities presided over the great centres of national religion, Dodona, Olympia, Delos, and Delphi. But the masses of archaic offerings at Olympia lay thickest about the very ancient temple of Hera; and at Delphi it was to mother-earth, fittingly enough, that the first sacrifices were offered in that ' recess of earth' where all the mysterious forces of nature seem to sit enthroned, the earthquake that rives the rocks, the torrent that furrows the valley, the thunder-cloud that broods on the mountain above.

To Apollo at Delphi and Delos, as to Zeus at Olympia and Dodona, there came frequent official deputations bringing gifts. With few exceptions these costly works of art, of which we read in Herodotus and Pausanias and in the temple inventories, have perished. The masterpieces of Ionian and Sicilian goldsmiths, the cups and crowns, the jewels which glittered on the shelves of the little treasurehouses, have vanished even more completely than the marbles, so many of which perished in lime-kilns on the spot, or the bronze statues, which were carried away captive into Italy, where for the most part they too perished in the furnace. What of the innumerable humbler offerings of bronze and earthenware so abundant on other sites? The truth is that these evidences of the constancy and intensity of the people's faith are relatively few at Delphi and at Delos. It is on the sites where the great goddesses were worshipped, on the Acropolis at Athens or in sanctuaries like those which Professors Waldstein and Furtwängler have recently explored in the Argolid and Ægina, that the offerings of devout pilgrims are found in thousands.

Of the urban sanctuaries, by far the richest in material remains, as well as in historic associations, is the Acropolis of Athens. Before long it should be possible to construct wonderfully vivid pictures of that great rockcitadel and rock-sanctuary in the successive stages of its history. The whole of the summit was cleared between

1885 and 1889, but only a part of the results has as yet been published. One of the best pieces of work done in connexion with these excavations is Dr Wiegand's book on the Poros-architecture of the Acropolis. By 'poros' the ancients seem to have meant any soft limestone or freestone as distinct from marble, and more particularly the soft yellowish limestone of the Piræus. These inferior but more tractable materials were extensively used in architecture and sculpture before the use of marble became general in the early part of the fifth century. Dr Wiegand, well-known as the explorer of Priene and Miletus, was one of the fortunate students whose period of study at Athens coincided with the Acropolis excavations, which were the training-ground of so many English and German scholars. He has here brought together every scrap of information furnished by the disjecta membra of earlier buildings which were found scattered all over the surface of the Acropolis, but in greatest numbers near the south-east angle of the Parthenon. Architraves embedded in the outer wall of the Acropolis, other members buried in the foundations of the Propylæa, shattered fragments laboriously fitted together in the museum, have yielded each its quota of evidence, until, after years of laborious measuring and tabulating, it has been possible to re-erect a portion of the façade of two of these buildings, to identify some of their sculpture, and to trace the stages in the growth of the old temple of Athena.

What are the buildings thus recovered for us? First, the Hekatompedon, a temple of Athena which, as its name implies, was a hundred feet long, and stood between the sites now occupied by the Erechtheum and the Parthenon. It was built probably in Solon's time, certainly before 550 B.C., and made way about a generation later for a more ambitious structure on the same site, which may plausibly be associated with the reign of Pisistratus. The latter, a monument of the developed canonical archaic style, had a peripteral colonnade of poros; but marble was used for its metopes, pedimentsculptures, and roof, including geison, sima, and rooftiles. It incorporated the cella-wall of the older temple but not its entablature. The famous Bluebeard,' or Typhon, the monster with three human bodies ending in