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Spanish j or x in viejo, Mexico; the German ch in noch, and others; and both as mutes and vocals in the Arabic and kindred tongues. The English partial consonants are ten in number, six of which are vocal and the rest mutes. Of the vocals, five are formed by the tongue and one by the lips. The linguals are r, l, z posterior as heard in azure, z anterior as in zone, th vocal as in then, and v. They are formed in the order named.

The r is formed farthest back in the mouth, by bringing the sides of the posterior portion of the tongue into contact with the upper teeth or gums. This position is essential: different pers sons combine with this other and different motions of the partf of the mouth; but these do not affect the essential character o. the elements. They at most but modify the effect on the ear By some, thus, and particularly is this true of the Irish, the anterior part of the tongue is sometimes rolled or vibrated against the roof of the mouth, which, especially if it is combined with a sudden abrupt separation of the tongue from the teeth or gums, gives the element a very peculiar character; it is then called the rolling or vibrant r.

The is formed next in order, by raising the tip of the tongue against the upper part of the mouth.

The land r alone of all the vocal consonants, have in our language no corresponding mutes. The reason seems to be that such mutes could not so readily be distinguished from the vowel mutes h and wh.*

These two elements possess another peculiarity in that they, unlike all the other linguals of this species, do not receive any vibration of the vocalized breath directly on the articulating organ. They only prevent the breath from flowing out unobstructed, as is the case in the vowel elements. They are hence denominated semi-vowels. They are, moreover, from being formed so near together, and from this last named peculiarity, very easily interchanged in the transmission of words from one language to another, and are liable to be confounded with one another. Children generally distinguish them but with difficulty. The 1, moreover, being formed in the same

* In the Welsh language, however, we find the mute represented by ll. No language now occurs which has the mute r, unless in some provincial dialects of the German, the palatal ch in noch is modified into the lingual. Was the Greek e when initial, as in grog, only an aspirate?

part of the mouth as the short i in pit, is often substituted for it in the derivation of words. Thus the Italian chiamare from the latin clamare, piano from planus, and the like.

The and the r are the only consonants, except the m and n, which form syllables by themselves, as acre, never, swivel, pronounced ak-r, nev-r, swiv-l.

The next element in order is z posterior, as heard in azure, leisure. The organs are brought into closer, firmer contact than is the case with the r, and the breath is vibrated against them. This fact distinguishes this and the other vocal consonants of this species, more than any thing else, from the 7 and ther; as the l particularly allows a considerable range in the part of the roof of the mouth with which it is brought in contact. The z posterior is liable to be confounded with the r, as might be expected from their being formed so near each other, although their respective sounds differ so much. Children often, thus, substitute ther for this element. It is probable, although no instances now suggest themselves, that comparative philology would furnish illustrations of this remark.

The mute corresponding to the z posterior is that represented by the characters sh. It is formed in the same way. The vocality is suppressed, and there is no distinct vibration against the parts brought into contact. This last feature enables us to distinguish the sh from the z posterior, in whispering. A like remark is applicable to the distinction between all the other vocals and their cognate mutes.

These elements are formed nearly in the same part of the mouth with the short i. Hence the substitution of the sh for the i in certain syllables of which i is the initial; as in act-ion, pass-ion. So likewise, as u is equivalent to short i and oo, the corruption of natshure from nat-yur becomes easy.

By slightly raising the tip of the tongue and almost closing the passage of the voice, we obtain, instead of zh, the element z in zone; and by suppressing the vocality and suffering the breath to pass without vibrating against the tongue, we have the cognate mute s as in son.

Passing the tip of the tongue forward against the teeth, we get the vocal th in then, with its mute th in thin.

v is the only labial of this species. It is formed by bringing the under lip in contact with the upper teeth. Its mute is f

It is worthy of remark here, that all these last vocal elements, with their mutes, are greatly modified in their character by the

heavier or lighter pressure of the organs against one another. The English is distinguished from most of the continental languages by its bringing the parts of the mouth into firmer contact, and by its vibrating the breath more violently against the occluding parts. The French j, corresponding to what we have denominated the z posterior as heard in azure, is thus much softer than the English element. The German w, as heard in wald, differs from our v only in this respect: as, in its formation, it suffers the breath to pass out without being vibrated against the teeth and lips, it resembles the and the r, and deserves the like appellation of a semi-vowel.

The other species of the consonant, or organic elements, are characterized by their wholly obstructing the outward passage of the vocalized breath. As the breath can be stopped thus only by the palate, the tongue, or the lips, we have three, and but three, varieties under this species. As, further, the voice may be wholly suppressed, or be admitted only into the cavity of the mouth back of the obstructing organs, or be allowed a passage through the nostrils, we have, in each variety, also, three individual elements. It is evident, also, that there can be but three in each.

Obstructing the breath by the palate, we have the mute k, the pure vocal g, and the nasal ng; by the tongue, the mutet, the vocal d, and the nasal n; by the lips, the mute p, the vocal b, and the nasal m.

It is to be remarked concerning these elements, that the nasals may be protracted indefinitely; the mutes have no time whatever; and the vocals are susceptible of only a limited prolongation, viz., only while the portion of the cavity of the mouth back of the obstructing organs is filling with breath. In g, the cavity back of the palate being quite small, it can be sounded only while the breath is passing to fill it; as the passage of the breath outwards being stopped, the vibration in the glottis necessarily ceases. In d, the cavity back of the tongue being larger, more quantity can be given; in b, of course, more still.

It is to be observed, further, respecting this variety of the alphabetic elements, that it is the obstruction of the breath by

*That ng is a simple element, is determined at once by the fact, that it is perfectly formed by a single position of the organs.

the respective organ that gives the element its peculiar character. In the linguals of this variety, particularly, as the tongue may be applied to any part, almost, of the roof of the mouth, and so stop the passage of the breath, the t, d, and n, may be con siderably modified in their character. We obtain a t of a different cast altogether, for instance, when we place the tongue against the upper teeth, from what is produced by placing it across the highest part of the mouth. In different dialects, how ever, different modifications of these elements prevail.*

The mutes, moreover, of this variety, have no sound whatever. Their only office in speech is to modify the sound of other elements with which they are connected. Thus in top, the tongue is first brought firmly against the upper part of the mouth, the parts separate, and at once a sound is emitted of a non-descript character, till the organs are in a position to give the o; when this is formed by another process, analogous to the first, the o sound is stopped by the organs taking the position of the p.

Besides the characters which represent simple elements, we have, in our language, some that represent sounds composed of different elements. The g, as in George, is one. It is evidently compounded of d and z posterior as in azure. Its corresponding mute is represented by ch as in church, which is compounded of the cognate mutes of the constituents of the g just named, viz., t and sh. X is another character representing a compound consonant. It is composed of g and z, or of their corresponding mutes, k and s. It is worthy of note, that x never represents a sound composed of a vocal and a mute, as is erroneously stated by some writers. It always consists either of k and s, or of hard g and z. The two sounds are exemplified in box and example.

From this analysis and enumeration, it appears that we have, in the English language, in all, thirty-two different elemental sounds, of which nine are mutes, and twenty-three vocal. Eleven of the vocal elements are vowels, two of which have their corresponding mutes; six are partially occluded elements, four of which have their cognate mutes; and of the remaining six vocals, three are pure and three are their nasal cognates, which have their three corresponding mutes.

In the Shemitish languages two t elements are distinguished; the Teth and the Tau.

The following table is subjoined to exhibit more readily to the eye the organic classification of the elements. The consonants are placed opposite to the vowels which are formed in the same or adjoining part of the mouth. The interchange of certain vowels and consonants will be at once explained by this representation of their juxtaposition. The mutes are placed opposite their cognate vocals.

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* Comp. Spanish ll, as in caballo, pronounced cabal-yo (= io.)

ARTICLE IX.

EXPOSITION OF LUKE 16: 1-14.

By Pastor Brauns, in Oesselse, near Hanover. Translated from the Theologische Studien und Kritiken. By the Editor.

FEw passages of the New Testament have given as much trouble to interpreters, as the one before us; few have remained so dark and dubious, notwithstanding every effort on its several parts, as the Parable of the Householder. Already from of old exposition pressed on exposition; and if we but compare the interpretations of Glassius (Phil. Sacr. 492,) Driessen (Dia

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