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ticularly to metaphysicians and schoolmen. They condemn both Averroës and Avicenna, the two greatest ornaments of Moslemism; and also Plato and Aristotle*." We suspect, however, that the Arabians are as ignorant of style as of method. Rhapsody is in no place less desirable than in a body of laws. The expression of a law should be precise, clear, complete, and brief. It would be difficult to discover any of these qualities in any portion of the Koran. To an Arabian ear the language may probably possess beauties that none but an Arabian can feel. But these delicate graces of style, though, in poetry, of infinite importance, are of secondary, perhaps, no importance whatever in a book of laws. It is more than probable, also, that even these graces are exaggerated, and that fashion makes an Arabian pretend to feel beauties which in reality he never discovered.

RELIGION.

One thing it will be necessary to premise respecting the standard to which we intend to refer the religion of the impostor. The religion of Mahomet, unfortunately for the largest portion of the human race, was not the TRUE RELIGION. As a means of salvation, therefore, it is worse than useless: we know too well that it cannot save men hereafter, we need only inquire if it can possibly make them happier in this life.

On examining the precepts of the Koran, we are astonished how little was either added to or altered by Mahomet in the ancient belief and institutions of the Arabs; and, moreover, we cannot but feel sensible that these alterations and additions were scarcely, if at all, for the better. The religion of Mahomet, as contra-distinguished from that of his countrymen, was marked by three peculiarities: the first was, that he established the worship of a single God; the next, that he set himself up for his inspired minister; the third, that he commanded his followers to propagate their belief by the sword. The first of these, viewed in conjunction with his other doctrines, was little more than a nominal improvement, the two last evidently mischievous.

The wild Indian, who, in the sun, fancies he beholds the sole governor of the universe, and to him alone pays his

• D'Herbelot, mot ALCORAN, p. 81,

adoration, believes evidently in a single god; but no one can say that he believes in the only true God. His god is a phantasy, and may be a terrible phantasy. The ignorant savage may fancy him a being endowed, not with mild and merciful, but malignant and revengeful qualities. If to this savage there should come some eloquent but half-instructed philanthropist, who should teach him that, instead of one such terrible Divinity, there were two, whose pleasure was creating happiness not misery; who, in their beneficent solicitude, fashioned this wonderful universe, in order to enjoy the spectacle of a world of happy creatures; can we believe that the religion of the savage would not be improved, though now he should offer up his orisons to two divinities instead of one? Mahomet, in circumscribing the number of the Arabian gods, altered not their character. He left them as he found them -easily irritated, with difficulty appeased; revengeful and capricious; to be propitiated rather by ceremonies than by virtuous actions; more interested in the proper cut of a votary's nails, or in the regular prostrations of his body, than in the happiness he enjoyed himself, or in the conduct he pursued towards others. There were seven things in which the faithful Mussulman was to believe; four things which he was to perform, only one of which was connected with the temporal welfare of himself or his fellows.

1. He was to believe in Mahomet's God; 2. in Mahomet as his prophet; 3. in his angels; 4. in his scriptures; 5. in his prophets; 6. in the resurrection and day of judgment; 7. in God's absolute decree and predetermination of good and evil.

His imposed performances were1. Prayer, under which were compre hended the washings and purifications; 2. Alms; 3. Fastings; and, 4. Pilgrimages to Mecca*.

"There is no circumstance connected with a religious system more worthy of attention than its morality

than the ideas which it inculcates respecting merit and demerit; purity and impurity, innocence and guilt. If those qualities which render a man amiable, respectable, and useful as a human being; if wisdom, beneficence, self-command, are celebrated as the

Sale, Pre. Disc. sec. 4. p. 93.

chief recommendations to the favour of the Almighty; if the production of happiness is steadily and consistently represented as the most acceptable worship of the Creator, no other proof is requísite, that they who framed, and they who understand this religion, have arrived at high and refined notions of an all-perfect Being*." Taking this observation for our standard, it requires little penetration to discover that the conceptions of Mahomet respecting the requisites for a perfect religion, were those of an ignorant barbarian. Throughout the Koran, the greatest possible stress is laid upon the necessity of a belief in Mahomet's pretended mission; all other virtues are useless if this single point of the prophet's divine appointment be not steadily fixed in the mind, and constantly present to the imagination of the aspirant to everlasting life. But while belief in the pretended prophet is thus exalted to the highest point the imagination can conceive, the really useful qualities are placed low down in the scale of importance. The consequence is, that the votary is careless of his conduct so long as he is fortunate enough to preserve a belief of the proper description. The faithful, that is the believing, Mussulman is in no doubt concerning his reception into the heavenly regions, if, while in the minor consideration of virtuous conduct, he might be wanting, he should have strictly followed the ceremonious observances of his religion, and firmly believed in the impostures of his prophet. This assertion is amply borne out by experience. A Mussulman proverb condemns every man as untrustworthy who has performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. That general precepts may be found in the Koran, which, in emphatic language, command men to be virtuous, cannot be denied; but it must be remembered that no legislator ever deliberately, in words, recommended vice. A general command to be virtuous is of little service, and should by no means receive our approbation till we have learned what, in the legislator's opinion, is deemed to be virtuous. object of every legislator is to enforce The great the observance of what he commands; that observance he would consider virtue, though he should command his subjects to slay all who wore clothes or

Mill's Hist. of British India, b. 2. c. 6. p. 263.

29

professed opinions differing from their own. cepts, then, may be considered as These vague and general preneither beneficial nor otherwise: no matter how emphatic, how beautiful may be the language in which they are conveyed. The circumstance really important is the conduct which the legislator has enjoined, and to which he has attached the character of virtue. We must learn what acts the legislator considers most acceptable to the Divinity; bation of mankind. what acts he recommends to the approMr. Mill. We again quote

discover, that nations do not differ so "If we search a little further, we shall much from one another in regard to a knowledge of morality and its obligations (the rules of morality having been taught among nations in a manner remarkably similar), as in the various degrees of steadiness, or the contrary, with which they assign the preference to moral above other acts. Among rude nations it has almost always been found that religion has served to degrade morality by advancing to the place of greatest honour those external performances, or those mental exercises, which more immediately regard the Deity; and with which, of course, he was supposed to be more peculiarly delighted. On no occasion, indeed, has religion obliterated the impressions of morality, of which the rules are the fundamental laws of huwith the highest applause, and no where man society. It has everywhere met has it been celebrated in more pompous strains than in places where the most contemptible, or the most abominable rites have most effectually been allowed to usurp its honours. It is not so much, therefore, by the mere words in which morality is mentioned, that we are to judge of the mental perfection of diffeclearly holds in the established scale of rent nations, as by the place which it meritorious acts."

From the list of actions we have given, is obvious that Mahomet established a as necessary to a perfect Mussulman, it scale of meritorious acts, in which idle, chievous observances occupy the chief ridiculous, useless, and sometimes misplace, while all really useful actions are passed over as unimportant. We need both of his religion and his morality. no further proof of the low character

Hist, of Brit. India, b. ii., c. 6, pp. 278, 279.

One mischievous portion of his religion must not be forgotten, viz., the command to propagate it by force*. If there be one means more effectual than another of keeping men in perpetual ignorance, and consequent misery, it is to make truth and justice always the portion of the strongest. If, to the settlement of contending opinions, force alone be necessary, it is evident that the correctness of either is a matter of no moment. Consequently to discover whether an opinion be founded in truth will never be the aim of the disputant. The measurement of his own and his adversary's powers, is the circumstance that will concern him; he will be careless concerning the propriety of his belief, so long as his arm is the stronger; and hatred the most violent will arise in his mind against all who do not agree with him, inasmuch as non-accordance with his opinion implies a contempt of his power. He will learn to attach to words and symbols immeasurable importance, for they will be all that he can understand. His mind will be shut against conviction; and turned with implacable animosity against every one who hoists not his standard, or who is not attached to his formula. Every bad passion will be generated in his mind; irascible, impatient of contradiction, and revengeful, he will be ignorant himself, and determined to keep others so; will resist every improvement, as an attack upon his creed, and invariably weigh every man's worth, not by his actions, but by the words of his belief.

The Arabians, before the appearance of Mahomet, were a tolerant people. They forced none to believe as they be lieved; but lived in harmony and friendship with persons of every persuasion. In the retired cities of Arabia, the Christian, the Jew, and the Pagan, all found a refuge; and not till the persecuting spirit of Islam was established, were they disturbed in their hitherto peaceful abode. Arabia, however, became through Mahomet divided against itself; and to the many already existing causes of dispute were added the direful animosities of religion.

The following saying of Ali raises a vivid conception of the success of Mahomet's preaching on this head: "HOLY WARS are the pillars of religion, and the highways of the happy; and to them who are engaged in them, the gates of heaven shall be open,"(Ockley's Trans, of Ali's Sayings, cxxxi.)

LAW.

Nothing but the prejudices of education could make a reasonable man look upon the Koran as a book of jurisprudence capable of conveying instruction to any but a nation of savages. Deficient in form; deficient in clearness; incomplete, it possesses not one single quality requisite to a body of law. In the midst of a vast farrago of nonsense, hidden amidst unmeaning explanations, and dark mysterious prophecies, there sometimes appears a command respecting the distribution of property, or the punishment of offenders. But no explanations are given-no regular description of the means by which property may be acquired; no enumeration of those by which the rights to it may be lost, is even attempted. The rights of individuals, in their several capacities, to the services of others, are nowhere distinctly mentioned; nor is there any the most distant approximation to a systematic view of the several obligations to which it was intended to subject the members of the community. As occasion prompted, or when a dispute happened, Mahomet was accustomed to issue a revelation, which answered for the immediate purpose. But the original unwritten customs of the Arabs remained in full force, receiving little modification from the decrees of the prophet. One advantage, and one alone, he may be supposed to have originated,-his were written decrees; it was a commencement for a body of laws, though a rude and imperfect one. This benefit, however, is more than counterbalanced by the evil of their being irrevocable. What the ignorant barbarian instituted, succeeding generations have been obliged to retain. No matter how absurd, how injurious the decree, religion commands the faithful Moslem to abide by it. The Almighty was its author, and he is allwise; and, moreover, is as wise at one time as another. How, then, shall we pretend to amend the divine ordination, or fancy that he himself need amend it? The conclusion is irresistible, provided the premises be allowed. The nations who have assumed the Moslem faith have consequently remained, and, while professing it, will remain, barbarians.

Into the particular laws which Ma homet established we do not intend to examine. That many of them were useful cannot be denied; but to esta

blish them argued no great wisdom on his part, whilst the lcose and uncertain manner in which they were promulgated shows that he himself attached little importance to their establishment. Succeeding ages have, in some degree, improved upon this rude system of law; but the improvement has been effected by the increasing civilization of the people, which has advanced in spite, not in consequence, of the Koran. As the opinions of the people have become more enlightened, better interpretations have been put upon the sacred volume; it has thus, in appearance, kept pace with the improvement of the people. From the obscure style in which the holy book is written, it is liable to several interpretations; in a barbarous age, a barbarous interpretation was the one chosen; but when succeeding times revolted at these abominable precepts, the interested clergy declared that their predecessors had been mistaken; that the true spirit of the Islam religion and law had been misunderstood. It has nevertheless constantly, and for the most part successfully, withstood all improvement. The amelioration in its tenets has been rare; and has never taken place till the bigoted priesthood foresaw that further opposition would be dangerous.

Even from this hasty and imperfect review of Mahomet's actions as a legislator, the reader will be able to form a tolerably correct estimate of his public character. That he was a barbarian, unskilled in the sciences of which he professed himself the inspired teacher, and deserving a very small portion of applause, as having advanced the civilization of his people beyond the point at which he found it, is abundantly manifest that he was superior to the age in which he lived may be believed from the success of his imposture. Among a people so rude as the Arabs, however, a very slight superiority was sufficient to render him thus successful. His talents contributed to his own fortune, not to his nation's improvement, he was skilled in whatever was necessary for his personal aggrandisement; in whatever was useful to others he was miserably deficient.

Of his private character we need say little. He has usually been branded with opprobrium for not conforming to established rules of morality, of which unhappily he was totally ignorant. For

this, assuredly, he deserved no reprehension. That, however, for which he does deserve the severest reprehension, is his departure from the morality which he approved and adopted. The moral code of a people must be judged by its approximation to that perfect standard which provides completely for the happiness of mankind; but the moral character of a particular man must be judged by the steadiness of his adherence to that code which he considers the correct one.

His unbounded gratification of his amorous propensities has been urged as a proof of his immorality. In this, however, he followed the manners of his countrymen: among them it was no crime to maintain as many female slaves and wives as their wealth permitted, and their desires prompted. Mahomet, in acting up to the measure both of one and the other, offended against no rule of morality with which he was acquainted.

Mahomet was a murderer and an impostor. He prompted and approved of the assassination of Sophyân and Caab. It must, however, be recollected that, among the barbarous Arabians, the same carefulness of life was not inculcated as among a civilized people; and the prophet, in getting rid of his enemies, did not outrage the feelings of his friends or his enemies. We cannot, indeed, but detest the morality of a people who tolerated such conduct, and also hold in exceedingly low estimation the civilization of him, who, pretending to improve that morality, upheld and practised the very worst portion of its tenets.

That Mahomet was an impostor cannot be doubted. In the early part of his public life he might have fancied himself somewhat peculiarly gifted; but that his self-delusion should have continued to the later years of his life, to such an extent as to acquit him of fraud, is utterly impossible. His story of the heavenly journey was a fiction, which nothing but absolute madness could have permitted him to believe. Moreover, the constant visits of the angel Gabriel, precisely at the critical moment when his aid was needed, are sufficient evidence of a perfect absence of all selfdelusion. But, being an impostor, did he employ the power he acquired to the advantage of his people or to his own aggrandiscment? He exalted himself

to a throne, and, possibly, when his own interests were not concerned, did, as far as his abilities enabled him, further the welfare of his people. He was not cruel, nor sanguinary his conquests were generally speaking marked by no butchery; nor was his government a tyrannical one. In his private life he was mild and gentle; affectionate to

Like other conquerors, Mahomet was occasionally cruel; he was, nevertheless, as compared with his age and nation, a merciful conqueror.-See, for specimens of his cruelties, Mod. Univ. Hist. b. 1. c. 1. p. 131.

his friends and his wives; and just and honourable in his dealings. As a private man, among his own people, he was esteemed virtuous and beneficent. For the most part he wanted' rather the knowledge than the will to be an estimable citizen, as well as a beneficent legislator. His vices were the vices of his age; and, as he was little superior in knowledge to the men by whom he was surrounded, it is not wonderful that he did not greatly surpass them in virtue.

NOTE.

Ir may be of service to point out to the reader the authorities on this portion of history. In reading to acquire knowledge respecting the fortunes of mankind during any particular period, two objects should be kept in view:-1st, to discover what events occurred; 2d, to learn the manners and institutions of the people whose history we are investigating. A detail of events without a knowledge of the institutions and customs which must materially have influenced those events, is utterly barren of instruction. Under this twofold division we shall therefore class the authors which we are about to recommend. It must be remembered that only such portions of history are here in contemplation, as are requisite to elucidate the life of Mahomet.

I. Works giving the History of Events.

1. The first we should recommend is the first chapter of the first book of the Modern Universal History, which as a repertory of facts is valuable. The Arabic scholar could not do better than trace out the Arabian authors there quoted.

2. Chapters 50 and 51 of Gibbon's Decline and Fall. These contain an easy, graceful narrative of the prophet's life and the conquests of his followers, a superficial account of his institutions, and a host of authorities to which the industrious historical reader would do well to refer. In Gibbon, moreover, will be found a clear description of the situation of the Greek empire, and all we know on the subject of Persia during that period.

3. Gagnier's Life of Mahomet contains the fullest account of his fortunes that any writer has left us. Gagnier has written precisely as a Mussulman might have written. He has related all the wonderful stories that the Arabs report of their prophet; and coolly describes every act of atrocity without observation or repugnance.

4. Prideaux will add little to our knowledge, but his book is not long.

5. Ockley's History of the Saracens. A most remarkable and original work, giving a lively picture of the times; containing some good, and many extravagant observations: it well deserves perusal.

6. Pocock's translations will be read by a hardy and determined investigator, but by no other.

These sources will be sufficient; and if more be required, the reader will be able, from the light they afford, to discover the remainder for himself.

II. Works respecting the Manners,
Institutions, &c.

1. Sale's Koran, and Preliminary Discourse. It would be difficult to find a more excellent authority. He has few prejudices, and relates a great deal. The reader is presented with a copious and candid detail, and is generally left to form his own judgment. Like too many other oriental scholars, however, Sale,was much inclined to overrate the worth of that literature of which he enjoyed a sort of monopoly. His facts may be relied on.

2. Ancient Universal History, vol. xviii. b. iv. c. 21, written by Sale, and containing an excellent account of the laws and customs of the Arabs.

3. Niebuhr's Travels. The best of oriental travellers he relates,honestly, and judges like a philosopher.

4. D'Herbelot... Bibliot. Orientale. Of this work, Gibbon says, "the Oriental Library of a Frenchman would instruct the most learned Mufti of the east ;" and again, "for the character of the respectable author consult his friend Thevenot (Voyages dn Levant, part i. c. 1.) His work is an agreeable miscellany, which must gratify every taste; but I can never digest the alphabetical order, and I find him more satisfactory in the Persian than the Arabic history." (Decline and Fall, c. 51.)

5. Not connected immediately with the present portion of history, but an admirable guide nevertheless in our investigations, is Mill's British India, b. 2. The author of the present work cannot omit this opportunity to acknowledge the great debt he owes to the profound historian of British India.

6. The French writers of the eighteenth century, more particularly of the Encyclopédie, are unsafe guides. Their conclusions are generally well drawn from false data. So with Voltaire.

7. Of the various modern travels into Arabia it is not necessary to speak specifically. They are all amusing, and many of them instructive, Their facts generally can be relied on.

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