upon, were chisels of iron. It was the implement principally used for writing upon rocks, stones, and marble. When wood was the surface written upon, the stylus was the writing instrument employed; it was also used for writing upon leaves, waxed tablets, tablets of lead, copper, &c. This ancient and well-known writing instrument was made of a great variety of materials. It has been made of hardened steel, of silver, of ivory, of brass, and of bone. It had a sharp end for writing with, and a flat one for erasing and for repolishing the roughened surface.

When the stylus was made of steel, as at first, it was frequently used by its owners in midnight and in mid-day brawls as a weapon of assault. It was with the styles of the conspirators that Julius Cæsar was slain. How ignoble a fate for this mighty soldier! Its frequent use as a weapon of destruction led, in some countries, to its condemnation. In these countries it had thereafter to be made out of more innocent materials.

When softer materials came to be employed as writing surfaces, other writing instruments were employed. Reeds and canes seem to have been the earliest of these. Egypt furnished a large supply of the description of reeds best fitted for writing with. They were cut and split in the same way as we do the goose quill. The Tartars, Indians, Persians, Turks, and many other Eastern nations, continue to use the reed pen to our own day. Hair pencils, and feathers of various birds, have long been extensively used in China and other Eastern countries for writing with.

Quills of crows, swans, peacocks, and of geese, have long been in use as writing instruments in the Western nations of Europe. As all our readers know, the goose quill has, as a writing instrument, distanced all its competitors in the race for popularity. "Who"-as one writer has it, "first borrowed from the emblem of folly (the goose) the instruments of wisdom is unknown." "It has been ascertained," says the last quoted writer, "that quills were used for writing with as early as the fifth century;" but the oldest authenticated account of their use that has come down to our own time is contained in a passage of Isidore, A.D. 636, who mentions their being in use in his time. Isidore also alludes to the use of reeds and feathers as writing instruments. Alciun, friend and instructor of Charlemagne, alludes to the use of the goose quill in the eighth century. Their use after that date is not disputed.

The first modern metal pen mentioned in history seems to have been a gold one, mentioned by Peter Bales.

The steel pens, now so universally employed, are quite a modern production. They are made single, double, triple, and ever-pointed. They are made to imitate the quills of the goose, the eagle, and the crow. They are made for ladies' use, and for gentlemen's. They are made for the man of commerce and the man of law-for the citizens of London, of Edinburgh, and of Dublin: they are made, in short, of every imaginable quality, and for everybody.

But, after all, it does seem as if there were really nothing new under the sun. We have called the "steel pen a modern invention; and in its present form and dimensions our statement is true. But steel, we find, was,

as a fluid-carrying instrument, used for writing with "a long time ago." The pen, it is true, was of somewhat greater dimensions, and of even a more formidable character than the original stylus. It is reported that the famous Constantine, "by a special edict, authorized soldiers dying on the field of battle, to write their last will and testament with the point of their sword, either on its sheath or on a shield "—it is needless to mention what the writing fluid employed must, in such cases, have been!

It may seem, in these days, when chemistry is working such marvels, and acquiring such laurels, a simple matter to make ink well. But, simple as the thing looks, it is pretty generally agreed that we have no such fine inks now as those made by our early ancestors-the Saxons! The cause of this falling off in a branch of manufacture so important, in some respects, as the making of our writing fluids, can readily be guessed. The days of illuminated missals are over-the weary, plodding, manuscript-transcribing days are past. There is now no call for wonderful inks, and so they are not made.

"Inks, or rather dark-coloured liquids, were used to stain letters previously traced or engraved on some hard substance, long before it was made to flow in the calamus, or pen, for forming them on a smooth surface; and the Chinese made their ink (Indian ink) as they do now, 1120 years before the Christian era; but they only used it at that time to blacken incised characters." (Humphrys, p. 175.)

Gold, silver, purple, red, green, yellow, blue, and black inks, have all in turn been, at one time, more or less popular for writing purposes. Sympathetic inks have long been in use for secret writings. "Printers' ink" belongs to the "art of printing," and so we need say nothing upon it.

The black inks formerly used had nothing in common with ours in their composition-soot, ivory black, charcoal, gum, and water, were the chief ingredients used. The ancient ink did not penetrate beneath the surface as the modern does. Our black ink is composed of gall-nuts, sulphate of iron, gum, and water. Red ink, now so largely employed in our day-books, ledgers, and invoice sheets, was formerly in very extensive use for writing the titles of manuscript volumes: it is composed of carmine, vermillion, hartshorn, gum, water, &c. Both red and gold inks were very early in use for writing with. English charters had frequently their initial letters written in gold. Charters by German emperors, written with gold ink upon purple vellum, are still in existence. Silver ink was not uncommon in early times. Green ink was frequently employed by the guardians of Grecian emperors, in affixing their signatures to deeds of state, till the emperors were of age. Black ink seems to have been at its best between the fifth and twelfth centuries, and at its worst between the fifteenth and seventeenth. The writings of the latter are, generally, much less legible than those of the former period, though of so recent a date. Varnishes of different colours were used by the Greeks and Romans for writing with. The metallic inks were frequently, if not indeed generally, varnished by means of ivory or bone rubbers. Various natural juices have also been, and, in Eastern countries, probably still are in use as writing fluids.

We conclude our history of Paper, Pens, and Ink, with a few remarks by Astle on the latter of these three most invaluable companions of the statesman, the lawyer, the clergyman, the physician, the poet, the historian, the merchant, the teacher, the pupil, the author, the editor, and of a hundred people besides:

"Ink has not only been useful in all ages, but still continues to be absolutely necessary to the preservation and improvement of every art and science, and for the conducting the ordinary transactions of life." "The constant occasion we have for ink, evinces its convenience and utility." (P. 209.)

We here close the history of our writing materials, but propose, in our next number, to follow it up by an inquiry as to "How and when we began to write; when we will, by means of a rapid review of the whole subject, endeavour to point out some of the lessons that it seems fitted to convey.

LINES BY MILTON IN HIS OLD AGE.

RECENTLY DISCOVERED.

I AM old and blind!

(Secretaries of Societies will oblige by sending Reports of Meetings.) HAMILTON YOUNG MEN'S LITERARY SOCIETY.-A quarterly meeting was held in the Trades' Hall, Hamilton, on the 4th inst.—The president of the society in the chair. Mr. Thomas Paterson, jun., secretary, read a report for the last quarter, which showed that the members were greatly increasing in number, and that during the last quarter twelve weekly meetings have been held, at all of which essays and questions of debate formed the topics for instruction. Under the auspices of the society, a course of lectures on "The Evidences of Christianity" has been commenced. The first was delivered by the Rev. Dr. Keith, patron of the society, on Sabbath evening, the 1st inst., and the second by the Rev. John Inglis, on Sabbath evening, the 15th inst.; other two lectures during the present month are expected to be delivered.

OXFORD.-LECTURE ON SEBASTOPOL.-At the Town Hall, an immense crowd of persons of all classes assembled to hear a free lecture upon the subject of "Siege Operations," with reference to the proceedings at Sebastopol, delivered by E. Jekyll, Esq., formerly a member of this University.

Both the interest and value of the lecture was considerably enhanced by the profusion of maps, plans, and models with which it was illustrated. Every point touched on was at once demonstrated to the eye. Was a fortress under description - there hung plans and sections of the whole and every part of it. Did the taking of it engage attention-views of the trenches were exhibited, and every move in the operations performed on a miniature scale. Were instruments of warfare to be explained-models of every one in question rendered their uses in a moment clear and distinct. Considering the utter ignorance of military matters prevailing in England, these were the only means in which the subject could be popularly treated; and by having recourse to them, the lecturer was enabled in about an hour to impart a large amount of sound, practical information.

The lecturer commenced by observing that siege operations were, of all others in which military men engage, the most difficult, the most arduous, and the most protracted. In a pitched battle, a few hours were often sufficient to decide the fate of the contending armies; but siege operations were often protracted over months or years, and were the severest trials of the skill of the general, and the bravery and endurance of the soldiers. Passing reference was made to the siege of Antwerp and others of recent date. First-class fortresses were few in number, the expense of their erection being prodigious, costing millions of money, while they were always exposed to destruction within a comparatively short period. There were no specimens of such fortresses in England; what means of defence we have in this way, being confined to second and third class structures. The fortress of Ghent was a five-sided edifice, constructed so as to present as few salient angles to the enemy as possible. An important part of these fortresses is the underground works, extending 100 yards from the structure, and enabling its defence to be carried on by means of mines. The outermost subterranean gallery is called the listening chamber:

in this is placed a drum with a pea upon it, which serves this purpose,-when the enemy's trenching operations advance within a certain distance, each blow of the pickaxe causes the pea to bound; the drum is then carefully taken round the gallery, and at the spot where the vibration is greatest, and, consequently, the proximity of the enemy most evident, gunpowder is brought, and the sappers are blown into destruction. This fortress could bring 145 guns to bear upon the enemy, on whichever side attacked; and they were arranged with a view to cross-firing. The lecturer supposed an army setting down before this structure with a view of destroying it. The first difficulty would be a reconnoisance of the fortress, so as to ascertain its weak points. This duty is one of a most critical nature; as it obliges the party taking the observation to advance within a short distance of the structure, and much danger is the result. The best time for this enterprise is the few minutes which precede sunrise and sunset. The army would, of course, be stationed without the range of the guns, and their first business would be to clear the land of all foliage in the shape of young trees, brushwood, &c. With this material the soldiers would set to work constructing gabions, fascines, and sap-rollers. The gabion is a large wicker-work cylinder, the fascine is a similar article, but smaller in diameter and much longer (18 feet in length), and the sap-roller is a huge work of the kind, but having a cylinder within a cylinder. These three articles are, when filled with sand, impervious to shot; the two former are used chiefly as portions of temporary batteries, or defensive fieldworks, and the latter machine is rolled before the sapper and miner to protect him from the fire of the enemy, when kis perilous duties oblige him to advance within range of their guns. When many thousands of these are constructed, the engineers take a tape, and with it draw a straight line from one point to another in front of that face of the fortress they intend to attack. Along the line thus indicated, the men begin to dig a trench broad in proportion to its depth, throwing the earth as they do so in the direction of the fortress, so as to form a protecting earthwork. This is the first parallel, so called from its being exactly parallel with the face of the fortresses. In forming this trench, each man would dig a cubic yard and a half, and then be relieved. As soon as this parallel is completed and supplied with guns, the soldiers begin to dig forward in zig-zag lines a distance of 300 yards. These are the means of communication between the first and the second parallel, which is here formed. The object of the line being zig-zag instead of straight, is to prevent the enemy clearing them by a raking fire. Demi-parallels are next constructed at 150 yards nearer to the fortresses; and ultimately the third parallel is formed at 150 from these. Then commence a series of very arduous and dangerous operations preparatory to the assault, which is effected by concentrating a heavy cannonade upon a given spot in the walls of the fortress, whereby a breach is created. Toward this advance, by a path in the works provided for the purpose, the Forlorn Hope-that brave body of volunteers prepared to encounter the horrors of first entering "the imminent deadly breach," the most perilous moment in the career of a soldier. For not only are the garrison prepared stoutly to contest every inch of the way, but they will often throw into the breach combustibles, sword-blades stuck into wooden blocks, in fact everything calculated to add to the danger of the passage. And when the victorious army have at length penetrated into such a place as Sebastopol, their trials and dangers are not at an end. Every house in the town is a castle, and the entrance of the soldiery in search of warmth and shelter is stoutly resisted. Often, too, the owners will have built into the back of the fire-grates, shells and combustibles generally, so that when the soldier, exposed for months to the hardships of the field, proceeds to light a fire to render himself comfortable, a terrific explosion takes place, blowing him and the building into the air.

A portion of the lecture was here devoted to a description of the various engines of war. The audience were shown the construction of the Lancaster gun, and the peculiarity of its oval bore. The shot for this gun are somewhat of a sugar-loaf shape, with a flat and a pointed end. They travel through the air with great velocity, and with a noise like a locomotive, so that the sailors engaged in the Crimea will cry out, as one roars over their heads, "Look out, Jack! there goes the