To create new matter is more than it is given to man to do. Hence, by the term production, in its widest sense, we mean simply the bringing forth of new goods-the discovery of new utilities, the change or transformation of already existing goods into new utilities,' the creation of means for the satisfaction of human wants, out of the aggregate of matter originally present in the world. (Producere!) We confine ourselves, however, in this to economic goods, as defined in § 2. In a secondary and more limited sense, production is an increase of resources, in so far as the goods produced satisfy a greater human want, than those employed in the production itself.2 8 4

1 Especially when natural science begins to be "a practical science.” (L. Stein).

The difference between the broader and narrower sense of production, corresponds essentially with that of gross and net income (§ 145). Compare also §§ 206, 211 ff.

Von Mangoldt distinguishes the coming into existence of free values of the production undertaken for an economic purpose. (Grundriss, 9.)

4 Gioja, Nuovo Prospetto delle Scienze economiche (1815), I, 49 ff. Besides positive production, there is a latent production, which prevents the decay of goods. It is not possible to make as exact an estimate of the latter as of the former; and much more depends in the latter case than in the former, on continuity and proper extension. Hence, latent production is especially a state concern. (Knies, Telegraph als Verkehrsmittel, 1857, 232.)

It would, however, be an error to suppose, that the creation of certain utilities for the producer himself, or for others, constitutes the only end of economic production. The more perfect economic production becomes, the greater grows the pleasure the producer feels in his products, which pleasure is at once the effect and the cause of his success. Hence, production is to a great extent its own end. That this is so in the case of artists is well known. "If you want only progeny from her, a mortal can beget them as well. Let him who rejoices in the goddess, not seek in her the woman," says Schiller. There is not a really clever workman but has something artistic in his mode of production. And even the meanest productive activity, provided it is neither over-driven nor misdirected, must of itself exert a good influence on the physical and moral development or preservation of the producer. An idle brain is the devil's workshop.5

SECTION XXXI.

THE FACTORS OF PRODUCTION.—EXTERNAL NATURE.

The division of natural forces which formerly obtained, into organic, chemical and mechanical, is of no great importance in Political Economy. The tendency is more and more to resolve organic forces partly into chemical and partly into mechanical. Between mechanical and chemical forces, again, the boundary is not fixed, heat being always capable of producing motion, and motion always of producing heat. Hence, it is all the more important for us to find a division of the economic gifts (matter, forces1 and relations) of external nature, into such

See Schäffle, in the Tübinger Univ. Programm, September 27, 1862, on the disastrous effect on the community of idleness. The leading of a happy life the Greeks called very appropriately, sumpárte. (Garve).

We use the expression "external nature" through the whole of this work in contradistinction not only to the soul, but also to man's body, designating his entire physico-intellectual activity by the term “labor-force” (Arbeitskraft).

2

By the expression "natural forces," we designate the economically useful

as are capable of acquiring exchange value, and such as are not. (See § 5.)

A. Those gifts of nature which, because they cannot be appropriated by any one, or which at least are inexhaustible as compared with the wants of man, and therefore never have a direct value in exchange, belong either to the class of free goods, in the fullest sense of the word, as, for instance, sunlight and the atmosphere (supra, § 5);3. or they constitute, by reason of their peculiar and intransmissible connection with the whole country, an essential element of the national resources.

SECTION XXXII.

EXTERNAL NATURE.-THE SEA.-CLIMATE.

To the last category belongs, for instance, the sea, the only natural boundary of a country, which from a military point of view, constitutes a protection to it, without, at the same time, disturbing peaceful traffic. (Riedel.) Here, also belong ocean currents, especially when uniformly supported by regular winds,' the ebb and flow of the tides, which consti

changes of matter, changes of place as well as of composition, which are made without man's coöperation; for instance, the gigantic machinery which supplies the greater part of mankind with water to drink, for domestic and other purposes the evaporation of the sea, the formation of clouds, rain, springs, rivers etc. See Bastiat, Harmonies, 277. Thus the sun's rays are indirectly the cause, not only of vegetation, but also of all wind and steam forces.

3 Spite of this "freedom," it may well happen that these gifts of nature can be utilized, in many cases, only on condition of some expenditure. The photographer can compel the sunlight to work for him only by means of a camera obscura, and the smithy the atmosphere, only by means of a bellows. But neither will ever successfully make an item, in their accounts with their customers, of the services of the sun or air.

1 The most important ocean currents may be explained by two causes: the flowing of the water from the polar seas to the equator (polar current), and the revolution of the earth about its axis (equinoctial current); besides which, there are the reflex currents produced by the horizontal form of the

tute a piece of commercial machinery of the very greatest importance, particularly when they affect the waters of rivers to a great distance.2 In this age, when the love of travel is so great and so universal, what prices are paid in many places by strangers for the beauty of a landscape, to its

owner.

Special mention should be here made of climate, and of its heat or moisture. The lines called isothermal, that is, lines of equal annual heat, are, therefore, of greatest importance to public economy, because the "zones of production" depend mainly on them. However, we are concerned here, not only

coast-lands. Thanks to these natural ocean highways, England is nearer to almost all the important mercantile coasts of the world by 300 geographical miles than the Eastern States of the American Union. The only exception is the Atlantic coast of America north of the Equator. North Americans to pass the line, or to double one of the two great capes, are obliged first to traverse the ocean as far as the Azores. On the other hand, the western coast of South America is very widely separated from Mexico, for instance, by its ocean currents. The colonization of America by Europe, instead of by China, is a consequence of the direction of ocean currents, as is also the fact that America has now the fairest prospect of influencing the civilization of China and Japan. What an influence the warm gulf stream has on the mild climate of north-western Europe!

While the Mississippi has no ebb or flow whatever, the influence of the ocean is felt in the Hudson, which is 60 geographical miles long, a distance of 29 miles from its mouth.

3 Thus, A. Young, Travels in France I, 293 ff., has defined, with approximate accuracy, the limits within which the vine, maize and the olive grow. And so von Cancrin, Dorpater Jahrbuch IV, 1, distinguishes the ice zone, the reindeer-moss (a lichen on which the reindeer live in winter) zone, the forest zone, the zone within the limits of which cattle are raised; that in which the culture of rye begins, that in which it becomes permanent; the wheat, fruittree, vine, maize, olive, sugar cane and silk-worm zones. The United States arc divided into cattle-raising, wheat-raising, cotton-raising, rice-raising and sugar-raising zones. Even in Europe, beyond the 60th parallel of north latitude, wheat can scarcely be cultivated; the polar limits of rye raising extend, at most, six or seven degrees farther. Towards the north, barley extends sometimes as far as the 70th degree. Here agriculture almost ceases, and the inhabitants are compelled to confine themselves to animal substances for food. On the other hand, these three cereals are not adapted to a tropical climate, while the bread-fruit tree, for instance, does not thrive at more than

with the average temperature of the whole year, but especially with the distribution of heat among the several parts of the day and the different seasons of the year, and the maximum summer heat and winter cold (the isothermal and isocheimenal lines). Coast lands are wont to have a milder winter and a cooler summer than continental ones with an equal average yearly heat. This produces a great difference in vegetation, because there are a great many plants which can endure the winter's cold very well, but require a hot summer; and vice versa. Were it not for this fact, in connection with the winter-sleep of plants, a large portion of the north would be entirely uninhabitable. Besides, the temperature of a place does not depend exclusively on its latitude, or on its height

22 degrees from the Equator, nor the banana at more than 35. Compare Grisebach, Die Vegetation der Erde nach ihrer klimatischen Anordnung. II, 1871.

4 Thus rye and wheat thrive in many parts of Siberia (Iakutzk) at an annual temperature of -7.50, while in Iceland no cereals ripen at an annual temperature of +4°. But in the former place the summer heat is + 16.2°; the winter cold, -39.2°; in Iceland, +12° and −1.6°. In England, the myrtle, laurel, camelia and fuchsia stand the winter well; while the vine no where ripens. On the other hand, Astrakan and Hungary are vine growing countries, although the former is as cold in winter as North Cape, and although the cold is more intense in Hungary than in the Faroe Islands, where neither the oak nor the beech grow any longer. No good wine is produced on the western coast of France, north of 47° 20′ north latitude; in Champagne, north of 49°, or in the Rheingau, north of 51°. In Norway, the average heat is greater on the coast than in the heart of the country where, however, grain ripens, while it does not on the coast; for the mildness of the winter, no matter how great, can make no compensation for the want of heat. On the other hand, the cattle on the coast can remain much longer out of doors, and the sea seldom freezes in such a way as to interfere with the fisheries. Blom, Norwegen I, 39. Boussingnault (Economie rurale considérée dans ses Rapports avec la Chimie, II) has made some interesting attempts to calculate by a mathematical process the amount of heat necessary to vegetable, during the period of vegetation. Thus, for instance, wheat requires about 12° (Réaumur) of heat during 140 days; that is, nearly 140 x 12° 1680° Réaumur. In Venezuela, the sugar cane requires a longer time to grow in a higher and therefore cooler position than in a lower and warmer, and the length of time required is in proportion to the height.