combined with considerable mechanical skill, raised himself to rank and eminence, and acquired a large fortune.

In 1767, Arkwright came to Warrington, where, relying on his mechanical acquirements, he endeavoured to construct a machine to produce a perpetual motion. Luckily for himself and his country, his attention was diverted from this impracticable project, by the representations of Kay, a clockmaker in the town, who advised him, rather to apply himself to the improvement of machinery for spinning cotton. Kay, it seems, had already made some progress in an invention of this description, and he and Arkwright made a joint application to P. Atherton Esq., of Liverpool, for assistance to carry their plans into practice. Mr. Atherton, deterred by the homely appearance of the two projectors, was afraid to hazard his property in the undertaking, but agreed to send a smith and a watch-tool maker, to construct the heavier parts of the machinery.

In former times, the miser withdrew from use, such articles as constituted the wealth of the community; such as corn, clothing, furniture of various kinds, and above all, as the least perishable, and least bulky, gold, and silver, and jewels. All these things, even if not kept till spoilt, or hidden, so as to be altogether lost, were at least withdrawn during his life-time, from the enjoyment of the community. But the community would supply the want, either directly, by the labour of its own members, or by exchanging with other nations the produce of that labour. Some few instances occur, even in such a state of society as ours, of this kind of hoarding, but they are very rare, and generally on a small scale.

On the other hand, in countries as far advanced in commercial transactions, as almost the whole of Europe, it may be said, that with hardly any exceptions, hoarding withdraws nothing from the public use. If the miser is engaged in any kind of business, he lives himself, indeed, (as in the other case,) on a very miserable pittance: but his desire of gain naturally prompts him to add continually his profits to his capital. Now, his capital is a part of the capital of the country, namely, of the stock that is employed profitably in producing more commodities; these commodities being used by others, though the owner will not indulge himself with them. If he is not himself engaged in business, it comes to the same thing; for, in that case, he lends to others, for the sake of increasing his store; and be continues to invest, in like manner, the interest they pay him. And it makes no difference, whether he lends to individuals, or invests in government-securities since in the latter case, the total amount of the government securities is not increased, (the national debt remaining the same,) every purchase he makes, sets free an equal amount, which is sure to find its

The clockmaker's work was performed by Kay, to whom in reality belongs a great share of the invention, although the subsequent improvements of Arkwright brought it to a perfect state. When the machine was completed, Arkwright, in 1769, took out a patent, and soon after entered into partnership with Mr. Smalley of Preston; the speculation, however, failed, and they both went to Nottingham, where, with the aid of several opulent individuals, they erected a large cotton-mill turned by horses. Having succeeded in this undertaking, he gradually enlarged his views, and in his hands, the carding and spinning of cotton became a great national manufacture. During five years, in which time the machinery was being brought to perfection, upwards of 20,0007. was expended without any return of capital, but the undertaking soon became extremely lucrative, and with the advantages of his patent-right, Ark-way into the hands of some private borrower; and, wright soon became one of the greatest manufacturers in the kingdom.

On the 22nd of December, 1786, Arkwright received the honour of knighthood, on the occasion of presenting an address to His Majesty, from the hundred of Wirksworth. He died on the 3rd of August, 1792, at his works at Cromford in Derbyshire.

In 1776 another machine was invented, called a mule, in which the two principles of the spinning Jenny and of Arkwright's plan are combined.

Having already noticed the art of weaving at page 188, Vol. III., in an article on the silk manufacture, we shall not again revert to the subject, the methods employed for the weaving of cotton fabrics being very similar.,

SOCIETY. VII.

EFFECTS OF THE CONDUCT OF A MISER, IN DIF-
FERENT STATES OF SOCIETY.

THE tendency which the conduct of individuals, in
pursuing their own private and selfish ends, has
towards promoting the interests of the community,
is more and more developed as Society advances.
Take, for example, the case of a MISER; one whose
selfishness shows itself in a love of hoarding. Such
a person, though his individual character is of course
every where the same, is yet, as to the effects of his
conduct on others, very different in different stages of
Society. In a community where commercial affairs
are yet in a rude and infant state, the conduct of a
miser is mischievous to the public; while, in one
that is in a more advanced stage, he is, though he
does not intend it, benefiting others by the sacrifice

of his own comforts.

for

generally speaking, of one who will employ this borrowed capital productively, in trade, agriculture, and manufactures. Whereas, if he had lived in what is called a liberal style, most of what he has thus laid by, would have been spent unproductively in grand dinners, the employment of livery-servants, race-horses, hounds, &c., all of which would have left behind no increase of the capital of the country

The individuals, however, who borrow the miser's money, not only owe him no thanks, as he had not their benefit in view, but are unable, in most instances, to refer the benefit to him. We can no more trace the actual progress of each sum that is thus thrown into the general capital of the country, than of the drops of water of each shower that falls into the ocean. Though it may be proved, that the whole mass of waters must be increased by just so much.

This slight notice of the subject has been introduced, as affording a striking instance of the manner in which, by the wise arrangements of Providence, not only self-interest, but, in some instances, even the most sordid selfishness, are made, in an advanced stage of society, to conduce to public prosperity. Not that, as Mandeville holds, private vices conduce to public prosperity. The spendthrift diminishes it and the miser, though his evil disposition is generally turned by an over-ruling Providence, to a good end, yet might lay out his money much more beneficially, if he possessed right feelings, and were moved by judicious public-spirit.

D.

A GOOD man is the best friend, and, therefore, sconect to be chosen, longer to be retained; and, indeed, never to be parted with, unless he cease to be that for which he was chosen.-JEREMY TAYLOR.

NESTLING OF THE REDBREAST.

A PAIR of robins chose for their abode a small cottage,
which, though not actually inhabited, was constantly used
as a depository for potatoes, harness, &c., and repeatedly
visited by its owners. It closely adjoined a large black-
smith's shop, in which it may be truly said,

That all day long with click and bang,
Close to their couch did hammer clang.

and in which the usual din of such places, is considerably
increased by the strokes of a hammer, which would have
baffled the strength even of "Hal of the Wynd," himself
to wield, and is worked by water. But neither the noise of
the adjacent forge, nor the frequent visits of the owners of
the cottage, deterred these fearless settlers. They entered
through a window-frame, the lattice of which had been
removed; and in a child's covered cart, which, with its
horse attached to it, was hanging on a peg over the fire-
place, and just afforded space for the purpose, they built
their first nest early in the spring. The circumstance was
observed, and soon became an object of curiosity to the
neighbours, many of whom came to look at the nest; these
inquisitive visits, however, had not the effect of alarming
the birds, who here reared, without accident, their first
brood. When the attention of the parents was no longer
needed by their full-fledged offspring, they set about pro-
viding for another family, and built their second nest on a
shelf, on the opposite side of the room, close to an old
mouse-trap. Here, again, they received visits of inquiry
from bipeds of a larger growth, and reared and dismissed
their progeny. This second brood had no sooner left them,
than, as if mindful of their Creator's mandate, "increase
and multiply," they again betook themselves to the task of
building a third nest, under the same sheltering roof; and
for this purpose, chose another shelf, in a different corner of
the same room, and there, in their mossy bed, on a bundle
of papers, on the 21st of June, I saw four half-fledged
nestlings, which the parent birds were feeding, while a
party of us were watching their proceedings. I am wrong,
perhaps, in saying the parent birds, for the hen alone
entered the room while we were there, the cock-bird con-
tenting himself with observing us from the outside. There
can be no doubt, that the same pair of birds belonged to
each successive nest, as the loss of her tail rendered the
hen conspicuous amongst her kindred in the neighbourhood.

—J. R.

ideas, which would not be expressed by common words, in such a manner as to be clearly understood. Thus, when an astronomer speaks of the altitude of a star, to indicate its height, or an optician of the refraction of a ray of light, to denote its bending from its straight course, as it passes from one medium, or substance, into another, they do no more than a carpenter, or a blacksmith, or a weaver is obliged to do, in speaking of bevilling, and rabbeting; of welding, and fine-boring; of throwing his silk, and building the monture of his draw-looms. They are obliged either to use new words, or to employ old words in a peculiar and restricted sense, in order that there may be no mistake in their meaning. Still, the difficulty of terms is very soon overcome: and the shortest, as well as the best, way, is to learn them thoroughly at once; just as an apprentice to a turner learns first to distinguish by name the various chisels, chucks, and mandrils, which he is to use; or a druggist to decipher the inscriptions on the drawers and bottles in his master's shop.

In treating, however, of a substance so common as water, it may be expected that we shall not have to use many uncommon words. Wherever this is necessary, we shall endeavour to explain them as they occur, in such a way as to remove any difficulty which they might occasion.

Water is not a simple substance. It is composed of two gases, or airs, oxygen and hydrogen, united in the proportion of eight to one in weight; so that nine pounds of water contain eight pounds of oxygen and one pound of hydrogen chemically combined. All matter, with which we are acquainted, is capable of existing in three forms, solid, fluid, or aëriform: and water is found under each of these forms. It is either solid, as in ice, hail, or snow: or liquid, as it is generally found in temperate or warm climates: or gaseous, that is, in the form of an invisible vapour, as in steam. Without entering into the question as to the cause of this change in the form of bodies, we THE quantity of silk material used in England alone, may consider, that the very small particles of which amounts in each year to more than four millions of pounds' bodies are composed, are capable of being acted upon weight, for the production of which, myriads upon myriads by two opposite forces. By one of these, which is of silk-worms are required. Fourteen thousand millions called the attraction of cohesion, the particles of a of animated creatures annually live and die to supply this little corner of the world with an article of luxury! If body are drawn together; by the other, which is astonishment be excited at this fact, let us extend our view called the force of repulsion, they have a tendency to into China, and survey the dense population of its widely- separate from one another. If the attractive force is spread region, whose inhabitants, from the emperor on his the stronger, the body requires force to separate its throne, to the peasant in the lonely hut, are indebted for parts, or it is a solid: if the attractive and repulsive their clothing to the labours of the silk-worm. The ima- forces are exactly equal, the parts of the body can gination, fatigued with the flight, is lost and bewildered in be separated by the least force, or the body is a fluid: contemplating the countless numbers, which every successive if the repulsive force is the stronger, the particles require some force to keep them near one another, the body resists compression, or it is an air, or vapour.

year spin their slender threads for the service of man.LARDNER'S Cyclopædia.

FAMILIAR ILLUSTRATIONS OF NATURAL
PHENOMENA.

No. XII. WATER.

Heat has the property of increasing the repulsive or expansive powers of the particles of bodies; and a very simple experiment will show the manner in which water may assume the form of a solid, or fluid, or a vapour by the influence of heat.

THERE are many natural substances very familiar to us, yet possessed of properties of which we are con- Suppose A, B, C, D, is a closed glass vessel, contented to be ignorant, for want of taking the necessary taining at the bottom a small quantity of pounded trouble. We are apt to think that the knowledge of ice or frozen snow, s; and that a thermometer, T, has things cannot be attained without the previous know-its bulb immersed in the ice, which will, of course, ledge of technical words; and, when we open a book mark a temperature at least as low as 32° of Fahrenupon any subject of natural philosophy, we are, perhaps, diverted from our first attempts, by meeting with some terms of art, or some reference to branches of science of which we are ignorant. Now it cannot be denied, that, in the study of some natural phenomena, we must have recourse to scientific terms. These are not mere hard words, intended to conceal knowledge from all except the well-instructed. They are necessary, in order to express, with accuracy,

heit. Suppose, also, that the cubical contents of the vessel are full 1700 or 1800 times as great as those of the part occupied by the ice s. Now let heat be applied at the bottom, as, for instance, by a lamp, or by setting the vessel on a heated plate; and observe what takes place.

If the temperature of the ice is below the freezing point, or 32°, the mercury in the thermometer first rises to that point, and then the ice begins to melt,

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION
APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.
THE MAN IN THE IRON MASK.

It was in the reign of Louis the Fourteenth, according it from a window facing the sea. A fisherman to a French historian, that an unknown prisoner, young, and of noble appearance, of distinguished height, and great beauty of person, was sent in profound secrecy to an island on the coast of Provence. The captive wore, while travelling, a mask so contrived by steel springs, that he could take his meals without uncovering his face, a strict order having been given that if he disclosed his features he should instantly be put to death. The king's minister, Louvois, paid him a visit, and spoke to him standing, treating him with the greatest respect. It was said that during this period of his confinement he one day traced some words with a knife on a silver plate, and threw VOL. V.

brought it to the governor of the island, who, when he found that the man could not read, dismissed him with the remark, that he was lucky in his ignorance. The governor of the place where the stranger was confined was afterwards appointed to command the Bastille; and under his care the man in the iron mask was taken secretly to Paris. In the Bastille, he was lodged as conveniently as the nature of the place allowed: his table was excellent; all his requests were complied with; and the governor seldom sat down in his presence. He played the guitar, and had a liking for lace and fine linen. The physician who frequently attended him was in the habit

142

In 1677, when the grandeur of Louis the Fourteenth was at its height, and he was served by men of courage, genius, and industry, whose ambition was to gratify that of their master, the Abbé d'Estrades, ambassador of France to the Venetian state, conceived the idea of obtaining for his Sovereign the town of Casal, a fortress in the territory of the abovementioned Duke of Mantua, and capital of the Mont-plain, that the great Louis had been duped by the ferrat. A dissipated and uneducated prince, such as the Duke, once in the hands of the wily French ambassador, was likely to be prevailed upon by means of a shrewd address, and the offer of money, to resign Casal, though it was the key of Italy. The agent selected for playing this double part