by us without examination, and this analysis constitutes the interesting science of GRAMMAR. But at this stage language is not perfect, and art has invented three other classes of words, and likewise means of modifying the senses of verbs and nouns by short contrivances. First, we wanted words to join facts and arguments together, and these are called CONJUNCTIONS. Secondly, words to prevent the recurrence of nouns, called PRONOUNS, as he, she, it, &c. And, thirdly, words to limit the nouns, called articles, as a man, or the man. The next point, the modification of VERBS, refers to the TIME in which the action is expressed, as present, past, or future; and to the sense as positive or conditional; hence, in each of these senses, and some others, it is contrived to vary the use of verbs in all languages, either by little words, as in English, or by changing some of the letters, as in French, Latin, &c. &c.. The rules by which these classes of words or parts of speech, are connected and modified, form the part of grammar called SYNTAX; and the mode of learning them and applying them, is by correcting errors, on your own judgment of the rule, in the manner of the exercises in the little grammar of Blair, which we have so long used, and with such unequivocal success in our grammatical studies. Language, therefore, is a curious subject, and a pleasing study. We ought, however, to pursue it merely for its use in expressing our thoughts with exactness and intelligibility. That is its sole object, and to this purpose our studies ought to be directed. Human ingenuity has not, however, limited its employment to mere convenience and necessity, but has extended it to compositions of all kinds; those which please, as well as those which instruct; and written language becomes in consequence a tool of complicated and extensive use, the success ful employment of which, in one of many ways, is sufficient for the longest and most industrious life. Before I conclude, I shall direct your imagination to the fact, that the first records were heaps of stones, tumuli, and pyramids; the next were hieroglyphic drawings and carvings; and the third were generalizations of these hieroglyphics in characters or letters, which in Chinese are 214 in number, and in other languages vary from 30 to 22. By this delightful abstraction, for which the world is indebted to a Phenician or Philistine, named HERMES, I am enabled to write these ideas, and you to read them; but the age in which Hermes flourished is now so little known, that our gratitude is directed merely to his genius, without any special sentiment in regard to a particular individual. This alphabet of Hermes branched into the Hebrew, Samaritan, &c. Another alphabet, invented by Cadmus, also a Phenician, was the Greek. The Romans invented another, which is the modern European; and there are besides these, the oriental alphabets of the Hindoos, Persian, Arabic, &c.; and the ancient Irish, Coptic, and Russian; in all six originals, and about 100 varieties. ** LETTER XX. Printing and its technicalities. MY ESTEEMED Children, The art to which we are the most indebted, after the invention of language, and the mode of writing it by letters and words, is that of PRINTING, by means of which, having written these letters, I am able to get the copies multiplied and perpetuated at so easy an expense, and in so clear and elegant a • manner. We are not, however, to conclude that this art was conceived and perfected at once. There were coins with inscriptions and portraits upon them above 2000 years before books were printed, yet this was printing on metal. Then there were seals engraved, with long inscriptions and complicated figures, but it occurred to no one to take impressions except on wax. Further, cards were printed from wooden blocks several generations before the same means were applied to battledores for schools. Such is the slow progress of all invention. At length, one Koster, at Haerlem, or Faustus, at Mayence, applied the principle of card printing to wooden blocks on which words were carved, and such carved or engraved blocks were the means used by the first printers of books. Another generation, however, found it easier to carve and cast separate letters, and put them separately together; and this became the perfection of the art, as it is used even to this day. The last improvement has been to cast the pages after they have been composed in types, and then to take copies as wanted from the solid pages, and this is called stereotype printing. It is the means which have been adopted in producing this book. Such a volume in manuscript would have cost, before the invention of printing, a sum equal to one hundred pounds of our money, but it is now afforded for a few shillings; hence, by this ingenious art, all are enabled to read and acquire knowledge. The invention of printing led, however, to many improvements in the forms of books and modes of display. Till then, manuscripts were in the inconvenient form of rolls, and they were written in capitals, without divisions between the words; it is proper, therefore, in this age of books, to know something of their construction. Several sorts of points and marks are used in printing, to distinguish the several parts of a sentence, and the several kinds of sentences and ways of writing which are used, that the reader may know how to manage his voice, according to the sense. These points or marks may be distinguished into three sorts, and are called stops of the voice, notes of affection, and marks in reading. The stops of the voice shew us where to make a pause, or rest, and take breath; and are the comma, semicolon, colon, and period. A comma divides betwixt all the lesser parts of the same sentence, and directs us to rest while we can tell two; as, Neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, shall separate me from thy love. A semicolon separates between the larger parts or branches of the same sentence, and directs us to rest while we can tell three; as, Woe to them that call evil good, and good evil; that put darkness for light, and light for darkness; that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter. And especially where there is a sort of opposition between the one and the other; as, And such were some of you; but ye are washed, but ye are justified, &c. A colon divides between two or more sentences that belong to the same sense, and have any proper connexion with one another; and it requires a pause a little longer than a semicolon; as, My soul followeth hard after thee: thy right hand upholdeth me. But let it be noted, that a colon and a semicolon are often used one for the other, especially in our Bibles. A period, or full stop, shows either the sense, or that particular sentence to be fully finished, and requires us to rest while we can tell five or six, if the sentence be long; or while we can tell four, if it be short. The notes of affection are: 1. the interrogation? 2. the exclamation ! A note of interrogation requires as long a stop as a period, and is always to be used when a question is asked. A note of exclamation (or, as some call it, admiration) requires also a stop as long as a period, and betokens some sudden passion of the mind, as admiring, wishing, or crying out; thus, O that I might have my request! Alas! Alas! How is the city fallen! The other marks used in reading are these twelve: 1. Apostrophe' 7. Section § 10. Asterisk, or star 12. Caret A The crooked line which is usually called a brace, is often used to couple two or more words or lines together, that have a relation to one thing. It is also used in poetry, when three lines have the same rhyme; as, Not all the skill that mortals have, Can stop the hand of death, or save } The twenty-four letters are called the alphabet, because Alpha, Beta, are the names of the first two Greek letters, A and B. The round, full, and upright print, is called the Roman, as, father. The leaning letters, are called italic, or Italian, as, father. The old black letter is called old English. In most books both the Roman and Italic are used, but in the old Eng |