countries of Europe, many of America, and some other parts of the globe. According to its own peculiar language, it is founded on "the practice of social and moral virtue." Its character is charity, in the most extended sense, and "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" are inculcated in it. Like every other society of any magnitude, it has been the object of hyperbolical encomium from its friends, and obloquy from its enemies. Like every other society of any duration, it has been subject to the influences of human frailties, among which vanity always takes a prominent part. Like any other society founded on general principles, and, at the same time, well organized, it has, at particular times, been subservient to the production of much good, and at others of much evil, according to the different purposes for which it has been employed, and, like every other society, which ever flourished, must sink with the lapse of years and the changes in the spirit of society. For about twenty years, much has been written for and against free-masonry, and illustrative of its history, ritual tendency, benefits and dangers; from a view of which, many of the uninitiated think themselves justified in maintaining that there neither are secrets preserved in the society, nor any moral principles inculcated, which are not of universal obligation, particularly as several of such works have been published by seceded members themselves; whilst most masons, on the other hand, maintain that the true secret was never yet divulged. There are, however, even masonic writers, who warmly defend the society, and yet call the secret signs and rites of masonry accidental and unimportant. (See, for instance, the article Freimaurer, in the German Conversations-Lexicon.)-No well informed mason will believe that the history of his society begins with the creation, as Mr. W. Preston gravely asserts, any more than a reflecting Catholic of the present time will believe that the double power of the pope, spiritual and wordly, is proved from St. Peter's having two swords at the time of Christ's capture, or from the ground on which it was put by Boniface VIII, that Genesis begins "in the beginning," and not "in the beginnings." Nor does the well informed mason credit the stories that his society originated with the Greek mysteries, or even the Egyptian, or that it descends from the Dionysian architects, from the Pythagorean society, or from the Essenes. These institutions had little of the character of a continue and connected whole, and nothing appears

to indicate that free-masonry can be considered as descending from any one of them. In Lawrie's History of Freemasonry (Edinburgh, 1804), more may be found respecting this point. As little can it be proved that the masons sprung from the Templars, or any other order of the middle ages, or, at a later time, from the Jesuits (q. v.), or indirectly from the Rosicrucians (q. v.). Part of these stories have been caused by the histories of the order (historia ordinis), purposely invented for the sake of the rites of the society, in which, however, is also concealed, under ciphers, the true history of the (so called) higher degrees. Nor is it the fact, that the free-masons originated from the common corporation of masons, for long before the origin of the corporations of the separate crafts in any part of modern Europe, there existed corporations or societies of artificers, who united all the crafts necessary for building (and we must keep in mind what the building of the middle ages was) under the direction of one or more leaders, the architects. Protected by the charters of the clerical and secular powers, and united in one great society for the construction of each great building, as the cathedrals, &c., these societies erected, in all countries of Europe, those gigantic monuments, generally termed Gothic, which excite our amazement, and, as has been remarked by doctor Henry, in his History of Great Britain, with an economy of time and expense truly surprising. We find these societies of architects every where. They were composed of members from Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, France, England, Scotland, and other countries (sometimes even from Greece), and united under very similar constitutions; for instance, at the erection of the convent of Batalha, in Portugal, about 1400; of the minster of Strasburg, 1015 to 1439; that of Cologne, 950 and 1211 to 1365; of the cathedral of Meissen, in the tenth century; of the cathedral of Milan, the convent of Monte Cassino, and of the most remarkable buildings of the British isles. That these societies of architects at last gave rise to one not occupied with actual building (speculative masonry, as it is called by some), appears, from a critical investigation of the history of free-masonry. The first societies of antiquity with which free-masonry appears to stand in a historical connexion, are the corporations of architects, which, with the Romans, existed under the name of collegia and corpora. It is related that Numa established the first corporations (if we may so term

them) of architects (collegia fabrorum), with many other societies of mechanics and artificers (collegia artificum), after the model of the Greek societies or colleges of artificers and priests: he also instituted for them proper meetings and certain religious rites. According to the laws of the twelve tables, the collegia had the right to make their own laws, and could conclude certain treaties with each other, if nothing was contained in either contrary to the public laws, which was conformable with Solon's legislation. Such corporations of all kinds, particularly the crafts connected with hydraulic, naval and civil architecture, early became dispersed through all the provinces of the Roman state, went on continually increasing, and cooperated most powerfully in propagating the Roman customs, sciences, arts and laws. They, as it were, cultivated the soil, which the sword had gained. The useful arts are, of course, among the most important gifts which a civilized race can confer on the rude tribes who may be dependent on it. When an Indian tribe first concludes a treaty with the U. States, one of the points has often been a stipulation that the latter shall send a blacksmith among them. If we now remember, that the Romans were preeminently an architectural race (like most conquering nations, who have already attained a considerable degree of civilization), and that the sciences and arts, connected with architecture, include a vast range, and are intimately connected with the other attainments of an advanced civilization, we shall easily comprehend that the colleges of architects must have been of great importance. As the collegia were established in those early times when states were formed after the model of a family, and the religious and political constitution confusedly mingled, they had, besides their character of a society of artificers, that of a civil and religious institution. This character was retained by the collegia, particularly the collegium of architects, to the end of the Roman empire, and transplanted into the corporations of architects of the middle ages, already mentioned, because the constant mingling of religion in law, politics and science, by no means ceased in the middle ages; on the contrary, in some particulars, a still closer union was effected. As the Roman collegia held their meetings with closed doors, nothing was more natural than that they should become, in times of violent political agitation, the place of political parties and religious mysteries, se

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cret worship and doctrines of all sorts. The Roman emperors of the first centuries limited the collegia as much as possible, but the later governments favored them so much the more. In the corpus juris are contained several lists of the mechanic arts, legally existing, and free from taxation, in the third and fourth centuries, among which we find those of architects, ship-builders, machine-builders, builders of ballista, painters, sculptors, workers in marble, masons, stone-cutters, carpenters, &c. There was no town at all important, no province ever so distant, where some of the collegia, just mentioned, did not exist, to the downfall of the Western and Eastern empires, with their peculiar constitutions, and having more or less of a political and a religious character. The corporations of artificers, whose occupations were connected with architecture, were called upon, by imperial orders, to come from all parts of the empire, to assist in the building of large cities, palaces, churches, &c. Similar artificers also accompanied each Roman legion. Such corporations also existed in Britain (where the Romans, during their conquests, built a great deal), both in the legions there stationed and in the cities. The same was the case in Spain, France, on the Rhine and on the Danube. It is true that these collegia vanished in Britain, with most of their works, when the Picts, Scots and Saxons devastated the country; but, in France, Spain, Italy, and in the Greek empire, they continued to flourish, and from these countries the Christian Saxon rulers of Britain, particularly Alfred and Athelstan, induced a number of artificers and architects to come to England in order to build their castles, churches and convents. Although these foreign artists, and the few who had survived the ravages of the barbarous tribes, were Christians, and though most of their leaders or directors were clergymen, yet the corporations which they formed had no other constitutions than those transmitted to them from the Roman colleges, which were spread over all Christian Europe, and the character of which is still to be learned from the corpus juris Romani. As the members of these corporations of architects of the tenth century belonged to different nations, and at the same time publicly or secretly to sects, widely differing in their tenets, and often condemned as heretical; in short, as they were very different in faith, customs, and manner of living, they could not be induced to go to England, and to remain there, without receiving

from the pope and king satisfactory liberties and letters of protections, especially jurisdiction over their own bodies, and the right of settling their own wages. They then united, under written constitutions, founded upon the ancient constitution of the Roman and Greek colleges, and the provisions of the civil law. The different tenets of the members, the scientific occupation and elevated views of their leading architects and clergymen, naturally gave rise to a more liberal spirit of toleration, a purer view of religion, and stricter morals, than were common in those times of civil feud and religious persecution. The lofty notions of Vitruvius (their constant manual), in regard to the dignity of an architect, may have contributed to ennoble their character. Their religious tenets being often objects of suspicion to the orthodox, they were obliged to keep them secret. Secrecy, moreover, was the character of all the corporations of the middle ages, and, down to the most recent times, the corporations of mechanics on the continent had what they called secrets of the craft-certain words, or sometimes absurd ceremonies, by which they pretended to know each other. To this we must add, that the corporations of architects, in the middle ages, were descended from the times of antiquity, so that their societies had received, in the times when Rome adored all gods, and listened to all philosophical systems, impressions derived from the Greek philosophical schools, particularly the Stoic, united with some fragments of the Greek and Egyptian mysteries, and subsequently modified by notions acquired in the early times of Christianity, particularly from the Gnostics, which led to certain doctrines and sacred ceremonies, clothed, according to the spirit of the time, in symbols, and constituting their esoteric mysteries. The watchful eye of the popes induced them to keep these doctrines closely concealed, in connexion with the real secrets of their art, and its subsidiary branches, their rude chemistry, their metallurgy, and natural philosophy, and to preserve their knowledge in forms otherwise foreign to it, if they wished to escape persecution.* The great importance which architecture assumed in those times, is to be accounted for from the enthusiasm for splendid houses of worship,

It is by no means improbable that, in these barbarous ages, their secret doctrines may have degenerated, and become mixed with corrupt notions, as was the case with the Society of Templars.

in which the religious spirit of those times displayed itself to an unparalleled degree. The history of these corporations, as here given, and their connexion with the present society of free-masons, appears from what we know of antiquity, from the history of England, and from the agreement of the constitutions, symbols and customs of the present free-masons with those of the above corporations.* Three documents have also been preserved, which further prove that historical connexion, as well as the doctrines and customs of those corporations of the middle ages, in great perfection, and which must be considered as valuable portions of the history of that period.-See Die drei ältesten Kunsturkunden der Freimaurerbrüderschaft (2 vols., Dresden, 1819).— Before we speak of these documents, we must mention that some writers speak of the Culdees as having formed a Christian church in England for some centuries before the Saxon conquest (in 449), and sent bishops to the most ancient councils. This church was, together with the Roman civilization, suppressed by the Picts and Saxons. The Culdees were obliged to seek refuge in the wildernesses of Wales and Scotland, in Ireland, and in the small islands between Great Britain and Ireland, chiefly in Anglesey and Mona, where they continued their apostolic institutions and usages, related to those of

The architects, with their assistants and pupils, formed associations, called Hütten, or lodges. At an assembly held at Ratisbon, in 1459, it was agreed that a grand lodge should be formed at Strasburg, as the place of general assembly, and that the architect of that cathedral, The society was composed of masters, companfor the time being, should be the grand-master. ions and apprentices, who had a secret word, with signs of recognition. In 1464 and 1469, there were general assemblies at Strasburg; but they were afterwards neglected for some time, in 1498, granted them certain privileges, by until the emperor Maximilian I, being at that city charter or diploma, which were renewed and confirmed by subsequent emperors. These diplo mas, together with the regulations and statutes, cathedral, in a chest with triple locks, of which were kept in the house of the architect of the the two oldest masons kept the keys, so that it required the presence of all before the chest could be opened. These documents were in existence until the French revolution, when they were destroyed, with many other papers, to prevent their falling into the hands of the Jacobin commissioners. Their rules inculcated the necessity of leading moral lives; submission to the masters, whom the companions served for five or seven years; attention to their religious duties; and charity to the poorer brethren, &c. Among the symbols were the square, the plumb-rule and the compasses, which are distinguishing marks of the officers of a free-mason's lodge at this day.

the Oriental church. They tried in vain to convert the rude Saxon kings, but they had not the same means as Augustin, who was sent by the pope, with 40 monks, in 597, to Britain. The Culdees were now again bloodily persecuted by the adherents of the pope. In their persecution, they maintained the spirit of Christianity, and studied in solitude. They at last found access to Alfred and Athelstan. The latter gave employment to many architects, in building convents, castles, &c., and the Culdees made use of their organization, and the independence guarantied by the king, to teach them their truly apostolic principles. Usher, Ledwich and Grose treat of this subject. The old writers on the papal side of the question, are said to have purposely avoided making mention of the Culdees. A further cause is thus assigned for the superior morals which distinguished the architectural societies in the middle ages. The eldest of the documents above mentioned, is the constitution confirmed, in 926, to all the corporations of architects, by king Athelstan, through his brother Edwin, at York, the original of which, in AngloSaxon, is still preserved in York. The beginning reminds the reader immediately of the most ancient Oriental church. Then follows a history of architecture, beginning with Adam, and comprising quotations from some rabbinical tales, respecting the building of Babel, the temple of Solomon, with mention of Hiram, limited, however, to the information contained in the Bible; then passing over to the Greeks and Romans; mentioning particularly Pythagoras, Euclid and Vitruvius. Then the history of architecture, and the oldest corporations in Britain, is told, agreeably to the accounts of the best historians, and, among other things, is mentioned, that St. Albanus, an honorable Roman knight, patronised the art about A. D. 300, settled the fundamental institutions of the masons, procured them employment, wages, and a charter from the emperor Carausius, according to which they should form a society in Britain, under the government of architects. The devastation of the country, and the destruction of the edifices by the northern tribes and the Angles and Saxons, is related, and how the pious Athelstan had resolved to restore the ancient and venerable society. After this follow the 16 most ancient laws, which agree exactly with every thing that careful investigation can find in the corpus juris relating to the college of architects. This constitution was preserved in Eng

*

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land and Scotland, in its essential features, until the fourteenth century, when the societies passed over into the stationary corporations in cities. It is proved by historical documents, that in Scotland and England, lodges, laboring according to these constitutions, existed in an uninterrupted series, and often admitted, as members, learned or influential men, who were not architects, including even kings (accepted masons). The reader will find, in the article Masons, in Rees's Cyclopædia, an account of the chief events which happened to the society of masons in England, and of its most influential members, the grand-masters, &c. The society of masons decreased, and sunk more and more, as the times changed. In 1717, we find four lodges existing, in which the old symbols and customs were still preserved; most of their members were merely accepted masons. So far extends the first period of masonry. In 1717, an essential change was made by three members belonging to some of the four lodges just mentioned, Desaguliers, James Anderson and George Payne. They changed the society into one which had nothing more to do with building, but of which "brotherly love, relief and truth were to be the essential characteristics. By retaining the name and customs of the ancient fraternity, the new lodges retained the privileges and charters of those societies. They further thought it well to establish a centre of union and harmony in one grand-master, the eldest masón, who, at the same time, was a master of a lodge; to constitute themselves, pro tempore, one grand lodge; to renew the quarterly communications of the brethren; to hold the annual meeting and the festival; and to elect a grand-master from among them, until they should have a brother of high rank at their head. In 1721, James Anderson was charged to remodel the old constitutions, and to form thus a general book of constitutions, which alone should be valid for all the special lodges, in future to be established under the authority of this grand lodge. The constitution of York was made, by him, the basis, though he compared a number of other constitutions. In 1721, his draft was accepted, with some changes, acknowledged, and printed in 1723. In 1738, a new edition was printed. In the editions of 1756, 1784, and in the latest book of constitutions of the grand lodge of old masons at London, united in 1813 (of which the * Sir Christopher Wren was the last grandmaster of the ancient fraternity.

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second part appeared in 1815), the traits of the ancient York instrument are always to be recognised. The following are the most important duties (charges) of the masons, as they appear in the edition of 1784, and, with few alterations, in the constitutions of 1815: The mason is bound to obey the laws of morality, and, if he understands the principles of the society, he will neither be an atheist nor a profligate. Though the masons of ancient times were obliged to profess the religion of their country, whatever that might be, it is considered now more beneficial to bind them to that religion alone in which all men agree, and to leave to each his peculiar opinions; they are to be men of probity and honor, whatever may be their differences in name or in opinion. By this, says the constitution, masonry becomes the central point of union, and the means of establishing friendship among persons who, without it, would live in continual separation. The mason is to be a peaceable subject or citizen, and never to allow himself to be involved in riots or conspiracies against the public peace and the welfare of the nation. No private hatred or feud shall be carried to the threshold of the lodge, still less political or religious disputes, as the masons, in this capacity, are only of the above-named general religion: masons are of all nations and tongues, and decidedly against political feuds, which never have been favorable to the welfare of the lodges, nor ever will be. The second of the above-mentioned documents was written under Henry VI of England, first printed in the Gentleman's Magazine, in 1753, p. 417 et seq., and, since then, has been repeatedly reprinted. The last of the three documents is the ancient mode of admitting masons, as it is still exercised by all the masons of the ancient English system. It contains some customs of the Roman colleges, and of the most ancient Christian monks and ascetics. From this ritual, that of the new English grand lodge, contained in Browne's Master-Key (London, 1802), differs in some important particulars, though they agree in spirit. The first lodge in France, after the English system, was established in Paris, in 1725; in Germany (in Hamburg), in 1735; in America, 1730. The more the order was extended, 'the less intimate became the connexion of the lodges; secessions took place; new systems were established; rivalry often occurred; to the three first degrees, of apprentice, companion and master, additional ones were added;

in fact, it would be difficult at present to give a general character of masons, so numerous are their lodges, and so various their characters. They have, in many places, done much good, by assisting the poor, establishing schools, &c. In some countries, they have excited the suspicions of the government, have been prohibited and persecuted, as in Spain. Pope Clement XII excommunicated them. As we have already said, the society has been sometimes used for bad purposes. These, however, are declared, by the members, to be foreign from its spirit. According to some masons, the society requires a total renovation. During the time of Napoleon, there often existed lodges in the different regiments. The activity of the masonic societies, in the French revolution; the use of their forms by the Carbonari; their titles and ceremonies, which have too often been made mere instruments of ostentation, we have not room to describe. Of late, the society has attracted a peculiar interest in the U. States, in consequence of the abduction of a certain William Morgan, attributed to some of its members. The opponents of masonry ascribe this act to the fundamental principles of the society, and therefore consider its existence as inconsistent with the security of the community. The subject has given rise to a violent contest. The dispute, however, is so recent, and is still pursued with so much warmth, that it cannot be considered, as yet, of a historical character, so as to require to be treated of at length in a work like the present. A brief statement of the facts of the Morgan case will be found under the head of Morgan. We refer the reader, for further information, to Preston's Illustrations of Masonry (8th edition, London, 1812); Lawrie's History of Free-masonry (Edinburgh, 1804); Thory's Histoire du Grand-Orient de France (Paris, 1812); and his Acta Latomorum (2 vols., Paris, 1815); Sarsena, oder der vollkommene Baumeister (4th edition); Macbenac, by Lindener (3d edition, 1819); Freimauer-Encyklopädie, by Lenning (Leipsic, 1822, 3 vols.); Die drei ältesten Kunsturkunden der Freimaurerbrüderschaft (2 vols., Dresden, 2d edition, 1819).

MASORA; a collection of remarks, critical, grammatical and exegetical, on the books of the Old Testament, by the Jewish doctors of the third and succeeding centuries. After they had long been transmitted orally (hence the name, signifying tradition), they were formed into this collection, at the beginning of the sixth