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greatest part of Asia, in the thirteenth century, and carried vast numbers of the inhabitants into slavery, Nedjm-eddin (Malek Salah), sultan of Egypt, bought 12,000 of them, including natives of Mingrelia and Circassia, but chiefly Turks from Capchak (Kipzak), had them instructed in the military exercises, and formed a regular corps of them. They soon exhibited a spirit of insubordination and rebellion. Under his successor, they interfered in the government, assassinated the sultan, Turan Shah, and, in 1254, appointed Ibegh, one of their own number, sultan of Egypt. The dominion of the Mamelukes in Egypt continued 263 years. The command was usually held by the bravest of their number. During this period, they made some important conquests, and, in 1291, they drove the Franks entirely out of the East. Selim I put an end to this kingdom, after having taken Cairo, the capital, by storm, in 1517. He placed a Turkish pacha as governor over Egypt, but appears to have been compelled, by circumstances, to leave the 24 beys, who governed the different provinces, in possession of their power. This state of things continued more than 200 years. But, from the middle of the last century, the number and wealth of the Mamelukes gave them such a superiority over the Turks in Egypt, that the pacha appointed by the Porte was obliged to conform entirely to their wishes. This superiority was owing principally to Ali Bey, who ruled with unlimited power, from 1766 to 1773, when he was assassinated. The Mameluke beys, especially Murad Bey, played an important part at the time of the French invasion. The Mamelukes, who were scattered throughout Egypt, and estimated at 10 or 12,000 men, maintained their numbers, principally by slaves brought to Cairo from the regions lying between the Black and Caspian seas. These were compelled to embrace the Mohammedan faith, and were all educated as soldiers. After a time, they obtained a share in the government, and some of them even became beys; for none but Mamelukes were capable of holding this office. They formed a fine body of cavalry, and attacked the French, when they landed in Egypt, with the greatest fury; but they were unable to withstand the European artillery, and many of them soon joined the French. The present pacha of Egypt, Mohammed Ali (q. v.), destroyed the beys, in 1811, by a stratagem.

MAMMALIA, MAMMIFEROUS ANIMALS,

in zoology; those animals which produce their young alive, and feed them with milk from their own breasts or dugs. Man, quadrupeds, and the cetacea, are mammiferous. (See Animals.)

MAMMEE-TREE, or WEST INDIA APRICOT (mammea Americana); a large and beautiful tree, native of tropical America, and interesting from the qualities of the fruit, which is highly esteemed. This fruit is large, roundish, and contains a bright yellow, firm pulp, which is envel oped with a thick, leathery rind: within this outer rind is a second very delicate one, closely adhering to the pulp, which should be cautiously removed, otherwise it leaves a bitter taste in the mouth, not very strong at first, but gradually increasing, and continuing for two or three days. The taste is peculiar, sweet, and very agreeable, and is accompanied with an aromatic, pleasant odor. The tree belongs to the guttifera, the same family with the mangosteen, and attains the height of GO or 70 feet. The leaves are oval, obtuse, very entire, smooth, and 6 or 8 inches in length. The flowers are white, an inch and a half in diameter, and diffuse a delightful perfume.

MAMMON; the Syrian god of riches, mentioned in the teachings of Jesus as a personification of worldliness. Spenser has personified Mammon in his noblest manner (book ii, canto 7), where sir Guyon is represented amid the secret treasures of the "god of the world and worldlings."

MAMMOTH (Russian momot); a species of extinct elephant (q. v.), found in a fossil state, entirely distinct from the existing species of Asia and Africa. (See Elephant.) It has left proofs of its existence in Europe, in Northern Asia, and in America. A great quantity of fossil ivory is obtained from Siberia, and it is visible, almost every where, on the banks of riv ers, which undermine the soil. Whole carcasses, covered with flesh and skin, preserved by the eternal frost of those regions, have even been found in the northern parts of Siberia. The bones have been occasionally found in all parts of Europe, and have given rise to stories of giants. They have been found in Kentucky, South Carolina, and other parts of the U. States, and Humboldt discovered them on the elevated plain of Quito. A mammoth, in complete preservation, was seen by Adams, a traveller in Siberia, who found the skeleton to be 94 feet high, and 14 long, from the tip of the nose to the coccyx. The tusks were 9 feet long. The

scientific name of this animal is elephas primogenius (Blumenb.), or elephant fossil (Cuv.). It is not to be confounded with the mastodon, a gigantic fossil animal of North America. (See Mastodon, and Organic Remains.)

MAMMOTH CAVE; a stupendous cave in Kentucky, near Green river, 130 miles south-south-west of Lexington. It has been penetrated 9 or 10 miles, and has many windings that have not been explored. The depth is 60 or 70 feet. It contains figures, some of which are of immense size and fantastic form; but is more remarkable for its extent than the variety or beauty of its productions, having none of the beautiful stalactites found in many other caves. The earth is strongly impregnated with saltpetre, and large quantities of it are manufactured.

MAN, in natural history, according to some naturalists, although, it must be confessed, rather from motives of pride than from anatomical considerations, forms the order bimana, in the class mammalia; according to others, and more scientifically, is included in the family bimana, in the order anthropomorpha, which contains, also, the two families of quadrumana, or proper monkeys, and lemurs. The family bimana, according to this classification, contains three genera, man, the orang-outang, and the gibbon. Linnæus was the first who ventured to class man (homo, homo sapiens) in a scientific system with other animals; and he did not escape the censure of some, as degrading the dignity of the human race by such an approximation; but classification is a mere statement of a fact in anatomy, and the philosopher, who observes and interprets nature, is not surely to blame. Man, then, whether considered as the head of the animal creation, and a part of it; or as a sole genus and sole species, distinct from others, and lord of all; whether defined to be a biped without feathers, or a quadruped without hoofs, a monkey with a voice, or a monkey without a tail,-if viewed solely in a physical light, and setting aside his divine reason, and his immortal nature, is a being provided with two hands, designed for prehension, and having fingers protected by flat nails, and two feet, with single soles, destined for walking; with a single stomach, and with three kinds of teeth,-incisive, canine and molar. His position is upright, his food both vegetable and animal, his body naked. It has been made a subject of dispute, whether there is more than one species in the human race; but it is merely a dispute of words; and

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if the term species is used in its common scientific sense, it cannot be denied that there is but one species. There are, however, certain and constant differences of stature, physiognomy, color, nature of the hair, or form of the skull, which have given rise to subdivisions of this species. Blumenbach reduces these varieties to five: 1. The first variety occupies the central parts of the old continent, namely, Western Asia, Eastern and Northern Africa, Hindoostan and Europe. Its characters are the color of the skin, more or less white or brown; the cheeks tinged with red; long hair, either brown or fair; the head almost spherical; the face oval and narrow; the features moderately marked, the nose slightly arched; the mouth small; the front teeth placed perpendicularly in the jaws; the chin full and round. The regularity of the features of such a countenance, which is that of the European, causes it to be generally considered (by them at least) as the most agreeable. The Hindoos, the Abyssinians, the Brebers, or inhabitants of mount Atlas, have features not essentially differing from those of the Europeans, except in the color of the skin, and which, among the Hindoo and Abyssinian mountaineers, is quite fair. Blumenbach calls this variety the Caucasian, from its supposed origin in the Caucasus. 2. The second variety was formerly called the Tartar, but improperly, as the Tartars do not belong to it. It has more recently been called the Eastern variety. The color in this race is yellow; the hair black, stiff, straight, and rather thin; the head almost square; the face large, flat and depressed; the features indistinctly marked; the nose small and flat; the cheeks round and prominent; the chin pointed; the eyes small. This variety comprises the Asiatics to the east of the Ganges and of mount Beloor, except the Malays. In Europe, it embraces the Finns and Laplanders; and, in America, the Esquimaux. Other writers have classed the Finns, as descendants of the ancient Scythians, in the first variety. 3. The American variety resembles that last described in several points. Its principal characters are the copper-color; stiff, thin, straight black hair; low forehead; eyes sunk; the nose somewhat projecting; cheek-bones prominent; the face large. This variety comprises all the Americans except the Esquimaux. There are several branches, however, which differ considerably. 4. The fourth variety of Blumenbach appears yet more arbitrary and uncertain than the last. It is called

by him the Malay, and described as of a tawny color; the hair black, soft, thick and curled; the forehead a little projecting; the nose thick, wide and flattened; the mouth large; the upper jaw projecting. This variety comprehends the islanders of the Pacific ocean. 5. The remaining variety is the Negro. Its characters are, color black; hair black and woolly; head narrow; forehead convex and arched; cheek-bones projecting; nose large, and almost confounded with the upper jaw; the upper front teeth obliquely placed; the lips thick; the chin drawn in; the legs crooked. This race is found in Western and Southern Africa, and the great islands of the Pacific, generally in the interior. There are very great differences in the tribes included in this variety: the Negro, with the complexion of jet, and wool; the Caffre, with a copper complexion, and long hair; the sooty Papous, or New Guineaman; the native of Van Diemen's Land; the Haraforas, who are found in Borneo, and the Hottentots, hardly differ more in situation than in features. (See Blumenbach, De Varietate nativa Generis Humani.) Bory de St. Vincent, in his Essais Zoologiques sur l'Homme, divides the human race into 15 species, and numerous varieties. Man, considered in his nobler character of a social, moral, religious and political being, will be more appropriately considered under other heads. (See Language, Philology, Political Institutions, Religion.)

MAN, ISLE OF (the Monada of Ptolemy); an island belonging to Great Britain, in the Irish sea, nearly equidistant from the coasts of England, Scotland and Ireland; 30 miles long, and 12, where widest, broad; 70 in circumference; square miles, 220; population, in 1821, 40,084; chief towns, Castletown (the capital), Douglas, Peel and Ramsay; lon. 4° 30′ W.; lat. 54° 15′ N. The interior is mountainous. Snowfield, or Snafield, the highest summit, is about 2000 feet above the sea. The soil, not naturally very productive, is greatly fertilized by the abundance of seaweed cast upon the shore. Agriculture, of late, has made great advances. The productions are barley, wheat, oats, turnips, potatoes, flax, cattle, sheep, poultry, &c. The island contains 17 parishes, under the jurisdiction of a bishop, styled bishop of Sodor and Man, who is sole baron of the island. The Manx language, a kind of Gaelic, prevails in the interior, but English is spoken in the towns. On the south is a small island, called the Calf of Man, which is separated by a narrow

channel.-In 1405, the island was granted to lord Stanley, and, in 1735, became vested in the duke of Athol. In 1764, it was sold to Great Britain for £70,000, with all its rights of sovereignty. MAN-OF-WAR; a ship of war; an armed ship.

MAN-OF-WAR BIRD. (See Albatross.) MANAKIN (pipra, Lin.). This is a small genus of birds peculiar to South America, having a compressed beak, thicker than broad, grooved; nasal fossæ large. Their tail and feet are short. In their general form and proportions, they are not very unlike the titmouse. They are generally small, and inhabit the depths of forests, being seldom seen in cultivated fields. The largest of these birds, the P. militaris, is distinguished by a beautiful crest of red feathers upon its head. Its back is of a fine blue, and the rest of the plumage of a deep black.-Closely allied to these birds is one of the most extraordinary of the feathered tribe,-the cock of the rock (rupicola). This bird is as large as a pigeon, is of a bright orange color, and is furnished with a double crest of feathers on its head, placed in the form of a fan. They live on fruits, scratch the earth like the common fowl, and form their nest of dry wood, in deep holes in the rocks. The female lays two eggs.

MANASAROWARA, a lake of Thibet, among the Himalaya mountains, is one of the most venerated of all the places of pilgrimage resorted to by the Hindoos, who visit it in great numbers, in spite of all the difficulties of the journey. The Thibetians also hold it in great reverence, and come from great distances to throw into it the ashes of their friends. It is about 15 miles long and 11 broad, and, with its borders of lofty crags, and its towering barrier of snow-capped mountains, forms a magnificent scene. Its shores are covered with monastic houses.

MANASSEH; eldest son of Joseph, born in Egypt. When brought with Ephraim to receive the blessing of his grandfather Jacob, the old man placed his right hand upon the head of the younger, and his left upon that of Manasseh, thus depriving the latter of the precedence due to his priority of birth. The descendants of Manasseh formed a tribe, which, in the promised land, was settled, half beyond the Jordan, and half in the territory of Samaria, Sichem and Bethany. (See Hebrews.)

MANCANDO (abbreviated manc., Italian) is used in music to denote that the time of a piece must become slower and slower, and the tone by degrees vanish.

MANCHA, La; a province of Spain in New Castile, almost every way surrounded by mountains, forming an immense plain, intersected by ridges of low hills and rocks; not an enclosure of any kind, except mud walls, about the villages; not a tree to be seen, except a few dwarfish evergreen oaks and olive plants, scarce deserving the name. All this vast tract of open country is cultivated in corn and vines. A traveller says, "There is no laborer nor young female peasant, who is not well acquainted with Don Quixote and Sancho." This is the most cheerful country of Spain; the inhabitants are affable, and great lovers of music and dancing; population, 214,087; square miles, 8000; chief towns, Ciudad-Real and Ocana.

MANCHE, DEPARTMENT OF LA; in the north-western part of France, on the British channel, called in French La Manche. (See Department, and Channel.)

MANCHESTER; an ancient town in Lancashire, England, known for its extensive manufactures; 186 miles N. W. of London, 33 E. of Liverpool; lat. 53° 29′ N.; lon. 2° 14' W.; population in 1801, 84,000; in 1811, 98,000; in 1821, 133,788, and, in 1831, including the neighborhood, 233,380. Manchester stands on the eastern bank of the river Irwell, near its junction with the Irk and the Medlock. The Irwell is rendered navigable to Liverpool, and, by means of canals, the town has communication with the waters on both shores of the island. (See Canals of Great Britain.) It is also connected with Liverpool by the Liverpool and Manchester rail-road, traversed by steam-carriages, moving with an almost incredible speed. On the opposite bank of the Irwell stands Salford, which, though under a different jurisdiction, is so connected with Manchester as always to be comprehended in the same statistical reports. The town presents nothing remarkable in an architectural point of view. It has a college, an hospital for the maintenance of poor boys, a library, and several establishments for the promotion of education and science. The philosophical and literary society has published transactions containing some valuable memoirs. The ground on which Manchester stands is a perfect level, and from whatever side it is approached, its crowd of spires, towers, manufactories and warehouses appears mingling with the smoke that hangs over it. It is to the cottontrade that the town owes its wealth and growth. The productive powers of machinery have even expanded in a much

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greater proportion than the increase of its population. The inventions of Arkwright produced a new era in its history. The processes of carding, spinning, weaving, and many of those of bleaching, dyeing and printing, are conducted by means of machinery, which, in productive power, is equivalent to a population of several millions. Between 1814 and 1828, more than 200 steam-engines were set up, carrying over 30,000 looms for weaving alone. Of 703,200 bales of cotton imported into Liverpool (1825), nine tenths were consumed at Manchester. Besides the manufacture of every kind of cotton goods, there are iron founderies, shops for making machines, &c.,which consume great quantities of the coal abundant in the neighborhood. Manchester does not send any member to parliament, but the reform bill proposes to give it two members. (See Parliamentary Reform.)

MANCHINEEL (hippomane mancenilla) ; a West Indian tree, celebrated for the poisonous qualities of the milky juice which abounds in every part of it. When a drop of this juice is applied to the skin, it causes the same sensation as a burning coal, and quickly produces a vesicle. The Indians use it for poisoning the points of their arrows, which preserve their venom for a long time. The workmen employed in felling these trees, first build a fire round the trunks, in order to make the juice evaporate, and cover their eyes with gauze; but, notwithstanding these precautions, they are subject to be incommoded with the dust. The accounts, however, which represent it as dangerous to sleep in the shade, or to come in contact with the rain which has fallen upon this tree, are highly exaggerated. The inhabitants of Martinique formerly burnt entire forests of the manchineel, in order to free their dwellings from its presence. This tree belongs to the natural family euphorbiacea; the leaves are alternate, ovate, serrate and shining; the fruit has the form, color and scent of a small apple, and contains a nut about as large as a chestnut. It is said that drinking copiously of sea-water is the best remedy, when a portion of this fruit has been swallowed. It grows in the West Indies, and other parts of tropical America, in the immediate vicinity of the ocean.

MANCO CAPAC, legislator and first inca of the Peruvians, was the 12th in ascent from the inca who reigned at the time of the Spanish invasion in 1532, an interval computed by the natives at about 400 years. Their tradition was, that this per

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son, with Mama Oella his wife, and sister, appeared suddenly in an island of the lake Titiaca, and declared themselves to be children of the sun, sent down to civilize and instruct them. Manco accordingly taught the men agriculture and other useful arts, whilst his wife instructed the women to spin and weave. He taught the Peruvians to revere internally, as the highest and unknown deity, Pachakamak, i. e. the soul or support of the world; externally, however, and as an inferior and visible deity, the sun, his parent; and he ordered sacrifices to be offered to the latter, as the benefactor of men. Perhaps some stranger, from a civilized land, appeared in Peru, and employed religion to procure an ascendency which enabled him to form a regular government. Manco Capac died after a long and prosperous reign, and, as far as tradition may be relied upon, seems justly to have been entitled to rank among the benefactors of mankind by the benevolence of his institutions. (See Robertson's History of America.)

MANDAMUS. A writ of mandamus (we command) is, in general, a command issuing from some superior court, as the court of king's bench in England, and, in the U. States, the supreme court of the U. States, or a superior or supreme court of any state, directed to some inferior court, or to some person or corporation, requiring them to do some particular thing, which such superior court has previously determined it to be their duty to do, or, at least, supposes to be consonant to right and justice. It issues where a party has a right to have a thing done, and has no other remedy, and in some cases where he has another, but a tedious and inadequate one. It is either in the alternative, ordering the court, corporation or party, to which or whom it is directed, to do the thing specified, or to appear and show cause why it should not be done; or absolute, commanding the thing specified to be done without any condition or alternative. The writ is usually first issued in the alternative, directing the party complained of to appear, and show cause against its being issued absolutely, and in case of there being no appearance, or no sufficient cause to the contrary being shown, an absolute mandamus is issued. The cases enumerated for the issuing of this writ, by sir William Blackstone, are to compel the party applying to be restored to some office or franchise of a public nature, whether temporal or spiritual; to an academical degree; to the use of a meeting-house, &c.: it lies for the produc

tion, inspection or delivery of public books and papers; for the surrender of the regalia of a corporation; to oblige bodies corporate to affix their common seal; or to compel the holding of a court. It may be directed to an inferior court, ordering it to proceed in the hearing of a cause, or to enter up a judgment. It is sometimes directed to a corporation, directing them to choose officers. The statute of 2 Geo. II, c. 4, provides for its being issued to command an election of a mayor or other chief magistrate of a city, town or borough; and so, where one is elected to any office, as town-clerk, or is legally elected member of any public body, as one of the aldermen of a city, and is refused admission or recognition as such, this writ may be issued in his behalf. By an act of the congress of the U. States, passed Sept. 4, 1789, the supreme court has power to issue "writs of mandamus in cases warranted by the principles and usages of law, to any courts appointed, or persons holding office under the U. States."

MANDAN; a fort and Indian village on the Missouri, 1600 miles from the Mississippi, by the course of the river; lon. 100° 50 W.; lat. 47° 20′ N. This place is remarkable for the encampment of Lewis and Clarke, during the winter of 1804-5, when on their expedition up the Missouri. They state, that on the 17th of December, the thermometer fell here to 45° below 0. The Mandan Indians are in this vicinity.

MANDANE; the mother of Cyrus. (See Cyrus, and Cambyses.)

MANDARINS; the official nobility in China. (See China, vol. iii., p 145,)

MANDATE; an order in Germany, used for a decree of a court of justice, by which, on the application of a plaintiff, something is ordered or prohibited to the opposite party. The process is unconditional (sine clausula) if no legal opposition can be anticipated, conditional (cum clausula) if the other party is at liberty to make remonstrances.-Mandate was also the name given to a certain kind of paper-money in the French revolution. After the assig nats, which had been kept in circulation by the violence of Robespierre, had lost all credit, a new money was created,-the mandates,-founded, like the assignats, on the credit derived from the confiscated property, but with the essential difference, that specific pieces of property, enumerated in a table, were pledged for the redemption of the bills, whilst the assignats furnished only a general claim. The mandates could be realized at any moment, as the owner was authorized to take any