176 MACCHIAVELLI—MACDONALD. MACCHIAVELLISM, in politics; that system of policy which overlooks every law, and makes use of any means, however criminal, to promote its purposes. The word originated from an erroneous view of Macchiavelli's Prince. (See Macchiavelli.) freed from foreigners. He sought the cure of Italy; yet her state appeared to him so desperate, that he was bold enough to prescribe poison. But it must be kept in mind that he does not advise all the measures which he discusses. He often treats them like mechanical principles in the abstract, and leaves the consideration MACDONALD, Etienne-Jacques-Josephof their expediency in practice to him Alexandre, marshal and peer of France, who wishes to make the application. Un- duke of Tarentum, minister of state, and doubtedly Macchiavelli believed that many grand chancellor of the legion of honor, was things are permitted for the purpose of born at Sancerre, in France, Nov. 17, 1765, uniting a distracted country, which would and descended from a Scotch Highland be criminal in any other case; and, to de- family. His father fought, with 20 other termine the true spirit of his famous work, Macdonalds, at Culloden, in 1745, for the the reader should have a full knowl- Pretender, Charles Edward, kept him con- . edge of the history of the age. If he had cealed for many weeks, and afterwards written at the present day, he must have went to France. The young Macdonald recommended very different means. In entered the French service in 1784, and ́the last chapter of the Prince, he calls upon was attached to the legion of the lieutenLorenzo of Medici to save his country. ant-general count Maillebois, which was Lorenzo was the nephew of pope Leo X. sent to Holland, to support the opponents Julian, brother to Leo, was expected to of the hereditary stadtholder. He embecome king of Naples, while Lorenzo, braced the principles of the revolution, a man of a warlike and fierce spirit, was rose rapidly to the dignity of brigadierexpected to unite the country between the general, in the war of 1792, and served Tuscan and Adriatic seas, and to found a with distinction in 1794, under Pichégru, kingdom of Tuscany. On him all eyes in the army of the north in Holland and were turned, and him it was Macchiavelli's East-Friesland. In 1796, he commanded purpose to urge to the deliverance of Italy. at Düsseldorf and Cologne, as general of Macchiavelli was far from being alone in division, soon after joined the army of the expecting salvation for Italy only from a Rhine, and at length that of Italy, under conquering king. Polydore Virgil, in Bonaparte, where he established his mili1526, when he dedicated his work De tary reputation. After the peace of CampoProdigiis to Francesco Maria of Urbino, Formio, he was in the army under Berexpressed this opinion. Twenty years thier, which took possession of Rome and earlier, John Anthony Flaminius said the States of the Church, and, as governor the same to pope Julius; and Varchi of the latter, he declared Rome a repubsays, " Italy cannot be tranquil until ruled lic. But Mack advanced to Rome with by one prince." Some of the best ob- 50,000 men, and Macdonald was forced to servations on Macchiavelli are to be found fall back with his troops to the army of in a work probably little known to our the French commander-in-chief, Chamreaders,-professor Ranke's Zur Kritik pionnet. The latter was soon strong neuerer Geschichtschreiber (Berlin and enough to venture an attack, and MacdonLeipsic, 1824). In regard to Macchiavel- ald contributed essentially to the victoli's personal character, even his enemies ries at Trento, Monterosi, Baccano, Calvi acknowledge that he was kind and affable, and Cività-Castellana. Dec. 14, he marcha friend of the virtuous, industrious and ed into Rome the second time. After the brave. He was one of the greatest think- removal of Championnet, in the spring of ers of his age, indefatigable in the service 1799, he was made general of the French of his country, and frugal in his manner army in Naples. While he was here carof life. He well deserves the inscription rying on war against cardinal Ruffo and placed over his tomb in the church of the Calabrians, Suwaroff and Melas had Santa Croce, in Florenceconquered Lombardy, and advanced to Turin. By skilful marches, Moreau defended the frontiers of France and the passes to Genoa. He then advanced to form a junction with Macdonald, who had evacuated Lower Italy. But, instead of pursuing his march covertly to Genoa, Macdonald, ambitious to defeat the enemy alone, marched through Modena, Parma Tanto nomini nullum par elogium, Obiit An. A. P. V. MDXXVII. MACDONALD-MACE. and Piacenza, on the road to Voghera. He, indeed, drove the Austrians, under Hohenzollern, from their position at Modena, June 12, 1799; but Suwaroff and Melas pursued him over the Tidone, June 17, and at Trebia, not far from Piacenza, on the 18th and 19th, totally defeated his army, exhausted with long marches and bloody actions. Macdonald was wounded, and obliged to retire to Tuscany, with his army reduced to 22,000 men. Moreau now restrained the conqueror from further pursuit, and Macdonald succeeded in ascending the Apennines, and forcing his way along the coast to Genoa, to Moreau. Soon after, he went to Paris, and coöperated in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire. Dec. 1, 1800, he conducted the corps of reserve over the Splügen, into the Grisons, and entered the Valteline. After the peace of Lunéville, he was, for a time, French ambassador in Denmark, from which he returned in 1803, and received the title of grand officer of the legion of honor. His zeal in defending Moreau prevented him from being made a marshal of the empire among the generals on whom this office was first conferred, in 1804. In the campaign of 1809, he passed the Piave with the right wing of the viceroy, took Laybach, and decided the victory of Wagram. In recompense for his services in that action, the emperor created him marshal on the field, adding, "I am principally indebted to you and my artillery guards for this victory." In 1810, he took the command of Augereau's division in Catalonia, and maintained his fame as a general, both here and in the war against Russia, in 1812. The capitulation of the Prussians, under York, who belonged to his army, forced him to retreat upon Königsberg, Jan. 3, 1813. In May, 1813, he took Merseburg, and was present in the battles of Lützen and Bautzen, and was defeated by Blücher on the Katzbach (q. v.). At Leipsic, Oct. 18, he commanded the 11th division. He also distinguished himself at Hanau, and in the bloody campaign between the Marne and Seine. At the time of Napoleon's catastrophe, in 1814, he had several audiences with Alexander, in favor of the emperor. Macdonald was the first to advise the abdication, after which he sent in his adherence to Louis XVIII.* During the hundred days (1815), he resided on his estates. After Napoleon's final overthrow, he was made chancellor of the legion of honor, and was directed to dis* Bourrienne describes, in a touching manner, his final interview with Napoleon. 177 band the army of the Loire. He has distinguished himself in the chamber of peers not less by the justness and liberality of his sentiments than by his fidelity to the king and constitution. In 1825, he attended Charles X to the coronation at Rheims, and afterwards visited England, Scotland and Ireland. MACE. Clubs of various descriptions are found among almost all savages, formed of a hard and heavy wood, some broad and flat, others round, angular, long or short, some plain and rude, others neatly carved. From this simple implement, the mallet, hammer of arms and mace originated, which were generally used, of old, both in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe. The gradual progress of improvement having rendered armor impenetrable by edged weapons, some instrument of effectual demolition became necessary. An author on military affairs, of the sixteenth century, recommends a leaden mallet, five feet long. The mallet was wielded with both hands, and horsemen had it hung by a thong or chain from the pommel of the saddle. The hammer of arms greatly resembled a common hammer. It differed from the mallet in being square or a little rounded or convex, while one side of the mallet was square and the other pointed or edged. The mace, in its simplest form, is only an iron club, short and strong. Its shape varied among different nations and at different times. One, still preserved, is of iron, two feet one inch long, with a hollow handle, and a head seven inches long, consisting of seven iron leaves perpendicularly fixed round a cylinder, and equidistant. The whole weighs three pounds nine ounces. Two maces, said to have belonged to Roland and Olivier de Roncevaux, famous champions under Charlemagne, were preserved in France towards the beginning of the last century, and perhaps later, consisting of a handle two feet long, to which an iron ball was attached by a triple chain. It appears that the ball was frequently covered with iron spikes, and was attached to the handle by a single chain. Mr. Grose states, that similar implements were long used by the trained bands of London, under the name of morning stars. (See Battle-Axe, and Arms.) At present, the mace is used as an emblem of the authority of officers of state (e. g. the speaker of the English house of commons), before whom it is carried. It is made of the precious metals, or of copper, gilt, and ornamented with a crown, globe and cross. 178 MACE-MACERATION. MACE; the outer, fleshy and coriaceous cover of the nutmeg. When the fruit is gathered, the mace is carefully separated from the nut, dried in the sun, and afterwards is packed in chests of different sizes, in which state it is obtained in commerce. (See Nutmeg.) eral small states, which were incessantly sion of its kings begins with the Heraclide MACEDONIA (now Makdonia or Filiba Vilajeti, a territory containing 15,250 square miles, and 700,000 inhabitants); the northern part of the peninsula in Eu-harbors to the Athenians. The succesrope, inhabited by the Greeks, a mountainous and woody region, the riches of which consisted chiefly in mines of gold and silver; the coasts, however, produced corn, wine, oil and fruits. It was separated from Thessaly on the south by the Olympus and the Cambunian mountains (now Monte di Voluzzo); and on the west, from Epirus, by the Pindus (now Stymphe). In regard to the eastern, northern and north-western boundaries, we must distinguish between the time before and after Philip, the father of Alexander. Before his time, all the country beyond the Strymon (Strumona), and even the Macedonian peninsula from Amphipolis to Thessalonica, belonged to Thrace; and Pæonia, likewise, on the north. On the north-west, towards Illyria, it was bounded by lake Lychnitis (Achrida). Philip conquered this peninsula, all the country to the river Nessus (Karasu) and mount Rhodope; also Pæonia and Illyria, beyond lake Lychnitis. Thus the widest Jimits of Macedonia were from the Ægean sea to the Ionian, where the Drino formed its boundary. The provinces of Macedonia were, in general, known by name even before the time of Herodotus. In the time of Philip, they were 19. The Romans divided the country into four districts the eastern on the Strymon and Nessus (chief city, Amphipolis); the peninsula (capital, Thessalonica); the southern, including Thessaly (capital, Pella); and the northern (chief city, Pelagonia). They made Illyria a separate country. Macedonia was inhabited by two different races the Thracians, to whom belonged the Pæonians and Pelagonians, and the Dorians, to whom the Macedonians are shown to have belonged by their language and customs. Pliny speaks of 150 different tribes, who dwelt here at an early period; but we have no particular accounts of them. The Macedonians were a civilized people long before the rest of the Greeks, and were, in fact, their instructers; but the Greeks afterwards so far excelled them, that they regarded them as barbarians. They were divided into sev ans. The south-eastern part is under the pacha of Saloniki; the northern, under beys or agas, or forms free communities. The capital, Saloniki, the ancient Thessalonica, is a commercial town, and contains 70,000 inhabitants.-See the History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, translated from the German of C. O. Müller (Oxford, 1830). MACERATION (from macero, to soften by water) consists in the infusion of sub MACERATION-MACHINERY. stances in cold water, in order to extract their virtues. It differs from digestion only as the latter operation admits the application of heat. Maceration is preferable in cases where heat would be injuri ous, as where volatile and aromatic substances are used. MACHAON. (See Esculapius.) MACHINERY. The utility of machinery, in its application to manufactures, consists in the addition which it makes to human power, the economy of human time, and in the conversion of substances apparently worthless into valuable products. The forces derived from wind, from water and from steam are so many additions to human power, and the total inanimate force thus obtained in Great Britain (including the commercial and manufacturing) has been calculated, by Dupin, to be equivalent to that of 20,000,000 laborers. Experiments have shown that the force necessary to move a stone on the smoothed floor of its quarry is nearly two thirds of its weight; on a wooden floor, three fifths; if soaped, one sixth; upon rollers on the quarry floor, one thirty second; on wood, one fortieth. At each increase of knowledge, and on the contrivance of every new tool, human labor is abridged: the man who contrived rollers quintupled his power over brute matter. The next use of machinery is the economy of time, and this is too apparent to require illustration, and may result either from the increase of force, or from the improvement in the contrivance of tools, or from both united. Instances of the production of valuable substances from worthless materials are constantly occurring in all the arts; and though this may appear to be merely the consequence of scientific knowledge, yet it is evident that science cannot exist, nor could its lessons be made productive by application, without machinery. In the history of every science, we find the improvements of its machinery, the invention of instruments, to constitute an important part. The chemist, the astronomer, the physician, the husbandman, the painter, the sculptor, is such only by the application of machinery. Applied science in all its forms, and the fine and useful arts, are the triumphs of mind, indeed, but gained through the instrumentality of machinery. The difference between a tool and a machine is not capable of very precise distinction, nor is it necessary, in a popular examination of them, to make any distinction. A tool is usually a more simple machine, and generally used by 179 the hand; a machine is a complex tool, a collection of tools, and frequently put in action by inanimate force. All machines are intended either to produce power, or merely to transmit power and execute work. Of the class of mechanical agents by which motion is transmitted, the lever, the pulley, the wedge,-it has been demonstrated that no power is gained by their use, however combined. Whatever force is applied at one part, can only be exerted at some other, diminished by friction and other incidental causes; and whatever is gained in the rapidity of execution, is compensated by the necessity of exerting additional force. These two principles should be constantly borne in mind, and teach us to limit our attempts to things which are possible. (See Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, Mechanics, Steam.)—1. Accumulating Pow er. When the work to be done requires more force for its execution than can be generated in the time necessary for its completion, recourse must be had to some mechanical method of preserving and condensing a part of the power exerted previously to the commencement of the process. This is most frequently accomplished by a fly-wheel, which is a wheel having a heavy rim, so that the greater part of the weight is near the circumference. It requires great power, applied for some time, to set this in rapid motion, and, when moving with considerable velocity, if its force is concentrated on a point, its effects are exceedingly powerful. Another method of accumulating power consists in raising a weight, and then allowing it to fall. A man, with a heavy hammer, may strike repeated blows on the head of a pile without any effect; but a heavy weight, raised by machinery to a greater height, though the blow is less frequently repeated, produces the desired effect.2. Regulating Power. Uniformity and steadiness in the motion of the machinery are essential both to its success and its duration. The governor, in the steamengine, is a contrivance for this purpose. A vane or fly of little weight, but large surface, is also used. It revolves rapidly, and soon acquires a uniform rate, which it cannot much exceed; because any addition to its velocity produces a greater addition to the resistance of the air. This kind of fly is generally used in small pieces of mechanism, and, unlike the heavy fly, it serves to destroy, instead of to preserve, force.-3. Increase of Velocity. Operations requiring a trifling exertion of force may become fatiguing by the rapidity of motion necessary, or a degree of rapidity may be desirable beyond the power of muscular action. Whenever the work itself is light, it becomes necessary to increase the velocity in order to economize time. Thus twisting the fibres of wool by the fingers would be a most tedious operation. In the common spinning-wheel, the velocity of the foot is moderate, but, by a simple contrivance, that of the thread is most rapid. A band, passing round a large wheel, and then round a small spindle, effects this change. This contrivance is a common one in machinery.-4. Diminution of Velocity. This is commonly required for the purpose of overcoming great resistances with small power. Systems of pulleys afford an example of this: in the smoke-jack, a greater velocity is produced than is required, and it is therefore moderated by transmission through a number of wheels.-5. Spreading the Action of a Force exerted for a few Minutes over a large Time. This is one of the most common and useful employments of machinery. The half minute which we spend daily in winding up our watches is an exertion of force which, by the aid of a few wheels, is spread over twenty-four hours. A great number of automata, moved by springs, may be classed under this division.6. Saving Time in natural Operations. The process of tanning consists in combining the tanning principle with every particle of the skin, which, by the ordinary process of soaking it in a solution of the tanning matter, requires from six months to two years. By enclosing the solution, with the hide, in a close vessel, and exhausting the air, the pores of the hide being deprived of air, exert a capillary attraction on the tan, which may be aided by pressure, so that the thickest hides may be tanned in six weeks. The operation of bleaching affords another example. -7. Exerting Forces too large for human Power. When the force of large bodies of men or animals is applied, it becomes difficult to concentrate it simultaneously at a given point. The power of steam, air or water is employed to overcome resistances which would require a great expense to surmount by animal labor. The twisting of the largest cables, the rolling, hammering and cutting of large masses of iron, the draining of mines, require enormous exertions of physical force, continued for considerable periods. Other means are used when the force required is great, and the space through which it is to act is small. The hydraulic press can, by the exertion of one man, produce a pressure of 1500 atmospheres.-8. Erecuting Operations too delicate for human Touch. The same power which twists the stoutest cable, and weaves the coarsest canvass, may be employed, to more advantage than human hands, in spinning the gossamer thread of the cotton, and entwining, with fairy fingers, the meshes of the most delicate fabric.-9. Registering Operations. Machinery affords a sure means of remedying the inattention of human agents, by instruments, for instance, for counting the strokes of an engine, or the number of coins struck in a press. The tell-tale, a piece of mechanism connected with a clock in an apartment to which a watchman has not access, reveals whether he has neglected, at any hour of his watch, to pull a string in token of his vigilance.-10. Economy of Materials. The precision with which all operations are executed by machinery, and the exact similarity of the articles made, produce a degree of economy in the consumption of the raw material which is sometimes of great importance. In reducing the trunk of a tree to planks, the axe was formerly used, with the loss of at least half the material. The saw produces thin boards, with a loss of not more than an eighth of the material.-11. The Identity of the Result. Nothing is more remarkable than the perfect similarity of things manufactured by the same tool. If the top of a box is to be made to fit over the lower part, it may be done by gradually advancing the tool of the sliding rest; after this adjustment, no additional care is requisite in making a thousand boxes. The same result appears in all the arts of printing: the impressions from the same block, or the same copperplate, have a similarity which no labor of the hand could produce.-12. Accuracy of the Work. The accuracy with which machinery executes its work is, perhaps, one of its most important advantages. It would hardly be possible for a very skilful workman, with files and polishing substances, to form a perfect cylinder out of a piece of steel. This process, by the aid of the lathe and the sliding rest, is the every day employment of hundreds of workmen. On these two last advantages of machinery depends the system of copying, by which pictures of the original may be multiplied, and thus almost unlimited pains may be bestowed in producing the model, which shall cost 10,000 times the price of each individual specimen of its perfections. Operations of copying take place, by printing, by casting, by moulding, by stamping, by punch |