husks. Here the mash of hot water and ground malt was occasionally mixed up for two hours; after which time the vent at bottom was opened, and the worts were allowed to filter through the stratum of oat-husks and heath. The mashing with hot water on the same grains was then repeated, and the worts were again withdrawn. The two worts being mixed in another cask, some yest was added and the fermentation allowed to proceed until it fell spontaneously, which happened in about three days. It was now ready for distillation, and was transferred into the tin body, which was capable of distilling a charge of forty gallons. A piece of soap, weighing about two ounces, was then thrown in to prevent its running foul; and the head apparently a large tin pot with a tube in its side, was inverted into the rim of the body, and luted with a paste made of oatmeal and water. The lateral tube was then luted into the worm, which was a copper tube of an inch and half bore, coiled in a barrel for a flakestand. The tail of the worm where it emerged from the barrel was calked with tow. The wash speedily came to a boil, and then water was thrown on the fire; for at this period is the chief danger of boiling over. The spirit almost immediately came over: it was perfectly clear; and by its bead, this first running was inferred to be proof. Its flavour was really excellent; and it might well have passed for a spirit of three months old. As soon as the upper stratum of water in the flakestand became warm, a large pailful of cold water from an adjoining stream was dashed in with sufficient force, as he said, to make the hot water run over, it being lighter; and this cooling process was continually applied to. In this way, the singlings were drawn off in about two hours; and the singlings of four distillations made one charge of the still to produce the potteen.

The malt was prepared by enclosing the barley in a sack, and soaking the sack and its contents for some time in bog water, which is deemed the best; then withdrawing and draining it.The malt was then made to germinate in the usual manner.When it had grown sufficiently, it was conveyed in a sack to the kiln, along with some sacks of raw corn, for the purpose of concealment. The raw corn was spread out on the kiln; but during the night when the kiln owner had retired to rest, the raw corn was removed, the malt spread on, dried, and replaced by the raw grain before day. The owner of corn drying on a kiln sits up all night to watch it. In this way discovery was eluded, and the malting completed.

Besides the much valued flavour of potteen, it has derived a part of its character from its being distilled entirely from malt. Now, however, about one fourth of raw corn is generally added. From a bushel of this mixed grist the potteen maker obtains a gallon of spirit of what is called three-to-one strength; that is, three glasses or measures of spirit mixed with one of water afford proof spirit. This is much below the produce that ought to be obtained.

The body of this still cost one pound; its head about four shillings; the worm cost twenty-five shillings; the mash-tun and flakestand might both be worth twelve shillings. The whole distillery was, therefore worth about three pounds; and it is purposely constructed on this cheap plan, as it holds out no inducement to informers or excisemen. Sometimes they have

been on an extensive scale.

I doubt very much that the flavour of potteen depends on the smoke of turf used under the kiln on which the malt is dried. This distiller told me, that his spirit has the same smell and taste on occasions when coal had been burned under the kiln.His malt had no peculiarity of smell or taste, although it often has. I think it probable that these peculiarities depend on the nature of the fermentation, the urging of the distillation so low as to procure, not only the whole spirit, but much of the essential oil. I have found that by making an alcohol perfectly destitute of foreign flavour, dissolving in it a small quantity of essential ail from distillers' faints, and diluting with a little water, a spirit resulted which had very much the flavour of potteen, although not precisely. It is possible, however, that the turf smoke with which these mountain distilleries abound may be absorbed by the spirit while running, but most especially by the worts while under fermentation. It is well known, that there is a period of the vinous fermentation at which odours are very apt to be absorbed and retained. The steeping in bog water may also contribute; for in the subsequent drying on the kiln the heat may be sufficient in some degree to char the bog extract remaining in the malt, thus giving origin to the smell of turf on the spirit.-Donovan.

LEAVES OF PLANTS.-The functions of the leaves appear to be a combination of those of the lungs and stomach of animals;

they not only modify the food brought to them from the roots, so as to fit it for increasing the size of the parent plant, but they also absorb nourishment from the atmosphere. The power of a leaf to generate sap is in proportion to its area of surface, exposure to the light, and congenial situation. Leaves throw off a very considerable quantity of water. Dr. Hales found that a cabbage emitted daily nearly half its weight of moisture, and a sunflower three feet high perspired in the same time eleven pounds fourteen ounces. But of all the plants of which the diurnal perspiration has been ascertained, the cornelian cherry transpires the most, the exhalation amounting to near twice the weight of the plant in twenty-four hours. This aqueous expiration takes place chiefly during the day; is much promoted by heat, and checked by rain or a reduction of temperature. Evergreens transpire less moisture than deciduous plants, which would lead to the expectation that they are more capable of living in dry situations which really is in general the case. Leaves have the power of absorbing moisture as well as of emitting it, which power of absorption they principally enjoy during the night. The hints and warnings which these facts suggest to the mind of every reflecting practitioner are numerous. They explain and enforce the necessity of a regular, and by no means as to quantity indiscriminate, supply of water to plants.

'PHENOMENA OF HEAT.-No. I.

THE first and most common effect of heat is to increase the size of the body to which it is imparted. This effect is called DILATATION, OF EXPANSION; and the body so affected is said to expand or be dilated. If heat be abstracted from a body, the contrary effect is produced, and the body contracts. These effects are produced in different degrees, and estimated by different methods, according as the bodies which suffer them are solids, liquids, or airs.

The dilatation of solids is very minute, even by considerable additions of heat; that of liquids is greater, but that of air is greatest of all.

The force with which a solid dilates is equal to that with which it would resist compression; and the force with which it contracts is equal to that with which it would resist extension. Such forces are therefore proportional to the strength of the solid, estimated with reference to the power with which they would resist compression or extension.

The force with which liquids dilate is equivalent to that with which they would resist compression; and, as liquids are nearly incompressible, this force is very considerable.

As air is capable of being compressed with facility, its dilatation by heat is easily resisted. If such dilatation be opposed by confining air within fixed bounds, then the effect of heat, instead of enlarging its dimensions, will be to increase its pressure on the surface by which it is confined.

Ex. 1. The works of clocks and watches swell and contract with the vicissitudes of heat and cold to which they are exposed. When the pendulum of a clock, or balance wheel of a watch, is thus enlarged by heat, it swings more slowly, and the rate is diminished. On the other hand, when it contracts by cold, its vibration is accelerated, and the rate is increased. Various contrivances have been resorted to, to counteract these effects.

Ex. 2. When boiling water is poured into a thick glass, the unequal expansion of the glass will tear one part from another, and produce fracture.

Ex. 3. The same vessel contains a greater quantity of cold than of hot water.

If a kettle, completely filled with cold water, be placed on a fire, the water, when it begins to get warm, will swell, and spontaneously flow from the spout of the kettle, until it ceases to expand.

Ex. 4. If a bottle, well corked, be placed before the fire, especially if it contain fermented liquor in which air is fixed, the air confined in it will acquire increased pressure by the heat imparted to it, and its effort to expand will, at length be so great that the cork will shoot from the bottle, or the bottle itself will burst.

Thus we perceive that the magnitude of a body depends on the quantity of heat which has been imparted to it, or abstracted from it; and as it must be in a state of continual variation, with respect to the heat which it contains, it follows that it must be in a state of continual variation with respect to its magnitude. We can, therefore, never pronounce on the magnitude of any body with exactness, unless we are at the same time informed of its situation with respect to heat. Every hour the bodies arcund us

are swelling and contracting, and never for one moment retain the same dimensions; neither are these effects confined to their exterior dimensions, but extend to their most intimate component particles. These are in a constant state of motion, alternately approaching to and receding from one another, and changing their relative positions and distances. Thus the particles of matter, sluggish and inert as they appear, are in a state of constant motion and apparent activity.

The solid bodies by which we are surrounded are continually undergoing changes of bulk with all the vicissitudes of temperature to which they are exposed. When the weather is cool, they shrink and contract their dimensions. On the other hand, when the temperature of the weather increases, their dimensions become enlarged; and these effects take place in different degrees in bodies composed of different materials. Thus, one metal will expand and contract more than another, and metals in general will expand and contract more than other solids.

If hot water be poured into a glass with a round bottoin, the expansion produced by the heat of the water will cause the bottom of the glass to enlarge, while the sides, which are not heated, retain their former dimensions; and, consequently, if the heat be sufficiently intense; the bottom will be forced from the sides, and a crack or flaw will surround that part of the glass by which the sides are united with the bottom. If, however, the glass be previously washed with a little warm water, so that the whole is gradually heated, and, therefore, gradually expanded, then the hot water may be poured in without danger; because, although the bottom will expand as before, yet the sides also enlarge, and the whole vessel undergoes a similar change of bulk..

1

When the stopper of a decanter becomes fixed in it so tight that it cannot be removed without danger of fracture, it may be removed by a method derived from the property of expansion here explained. Let a cloth dipped in hot water be wrapped round the neck of the decanter so as to heat the glass of the neck; it will expand, and increase its dimensions; meanwhile, the heat not having reached the stopper, it will retain its former dimensions, and, consequently, will become loose in the decanter, and may be easily withdrawn. If the neck of the decanter be thick it will be necessary to maintain the application of heat to it for a considerable time to accomplish this, because, as will be seen hereafter, heat penetrates giass very slowly.

Vats, tubs, barrels, and similar vessels, formed of staves of wood, are bound together by iron hoops which surround them. If these hoops be put upon the vessel when highly heated, and then be cooled, they will contract so as to draw together the staves with irresistible force.

The same method is used to fasten the tires on the wheels of carriages. The hoop of iron by which the wheel is surrounded, 'is so constructed as exactly to fit the wheel when it is nearly red-hot. In this state it is placed on the wheel, and then cooled; it undergoes a sudden contraction, and thus strongly binds the fellies upon the spokes.

When ornamental furniture is inlaid with metal, care should be taken to provide some means for allowing the metal to expand, since its dilatability is considerably greater than that of the wood in which it is inlaid. Inattention to this circumstance frequently causes the inlaid metal to start from its seat, and this is particularly the case when it is inlaid upon a curved surface, such as the back of a chair. The metal, being more dilatable than the wood, becomes, in a warm room, too large for the seat in which it is inserted, and therefore starts

out.

In the systems of metallic pipes by which water is conducted to great distances for the supply of towns, and other similar purposes, the changes of temperature at different seasons of the year cause the lengths of the pipes to undergo such a change, that it is necessary to place, at certain points along the line, pipes so constructed that they are capable of sliding one within another, in a manner similar to the joints of a telescope, in order to yield to the effects of these alternate contractions and dilatations. If this provision were not made, the series of pipes would necessarily break by the force with which it would contract or expand. Similar means are used for the same purpose in all great structures of iron, such as bridges, and are called compensators.

All measurements of length are made by the successive application of solid bodies of known magnitude to the space to be measured. Now, as it has been seen that all solid bodies are liable to a change of magnitude with every change of temperature, it would follow that the solid body which is used as a standard measure will be at one time larger and at another

time smaller, and therefore, that its results will be attended with errors proportional to the change of magnitude to which it is liable by the vicissitudes of temperature. For ordinary domestic or commercial purposes, this change is so small as to be altogether disregarded, but in cases where very great accuracy is required, such, for example, as the measurement of bases in great surveys, or in the construction of national standards of measure, it becomes of importance either to guard against this error, or, what is the same, to estimate its amount.—. Dr. Lardner.

ROMAN SOLDIERS.

THE first Roman army was a legion or selection from the citizens who were able to bear arms. The troops which were called legions, varied between the numbers of 4,260 and 12,800 men. Two legions were raised by each consul, before whom the whole people were assembled; in the first place, the military tribunes were named, and no citizen could avoid taking his part in the "service of his country," if he had not, before his forty-sixth year, made sixteen campaigns.

Secrecy was so rigidly observed in the Roman army, that the soldier was frequently ignorant against what enemy he was to be led, and the spies were even deceived by the appearance of feigned enterprises. The general, on the march, invariably assumed the appearance of that confidence which he wished to infuse into his army, yet omitted in no instance to watch over every thing with distrust. He rather preferred those movements which seemed most improbable, that the enemy might not be prepared, and the most difficult enterprises, because they awaken all the dormant powers of action.

The youthful warriors were exercised, not only in the use of arms and in evolutions, but in all that renders the body strong and agile. The Roman soldiers were taught to swim through rivers, to keep up with horses in running, to jump down from their horses, and spring up again without stopping. They sought to bring the army to that degree of perfection, that no sort of warfare should appear new to it, and no exigency should find it without adequate resources. To their perseverance in the perpetual study of that peculiar art of Rome-to their conviction that it is never to be thoroughly learned-to their "mutual emulation"-were they indebted for their unrivalled excellence. May every man sedulously follow this example in the conduct of his life, and in the warfare against himself!

POISONING OF PLANTS.-Animals are poisoned by introducing deleterious substances into their circulation, either through the organs of digestion or the absorbents; plants in the same way may be poisoned with deleterious substances absorbed by the roots. M. Marcet, of Geneva, tried several interesting experiments on this subject. He watered with two ounces of water, containing twelve grains of oxide of arsenic in solution,-a pot containing two or three plants of kidney beans, each of five or six leaves. At the end of from twenty-four to thirty-six hours the plants had faded, the leaves had drooped, and had even begun to turn yellow; the roots remained fresh, and appeared to be living. Attempts to restore the plants after twelve or eighteen hours by abundant 'watering, failed to recover them. The leaves and stem of one of the dead plants gave, upon chemical examinations, traces of arsenic. A branch of a rose-tree, including a blossom, was gathered just as the rose began to blow; the stem was put into a vessel contair ing a solution of six grains of oxide of arsenic in an ounce of y ater. The flower and leaves soon shewed symptoms of disease, and on the fifth day the whole branch was withered and dead, though only one-fifth of a grain of arsenic had been absorbed. Similar stems, placed in pure water, had, after five days, the roses fully expanded, and the leaves fresh and green.

SOCIALITY OF EAGLES.--Mr. James Forbes, Clestrom, Orkney, has in his possession six eagles, of different ages and species, all confined in one cage. These birds have very few quarrels, and these only when very hungry, and about some morsel of food.

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639, His successor, St. Flannan, was consecrated bishop of this place, from which time, says Archdall, we hear no more of this abbey. I think, however, I shall find no difficulty in selecting popular matter enough relative to the subsequent history of this place, for the ordinary extent of my communications. Not that I would be understood as decrying that useful compilation, the "Monasticon Hibernicum." Irishmen are too prone to undervalue, and even asperse the labours of their own countrymen, as if each thought that the fair character he detracted from his neighbour became henceforth his own. That fault, at least, was never of my nature. Those who entertain it should remember the poet.

"Who steals my purse steals trash; 'tis something-nothing"Twas mine-'tis his-and has been slave to thousands.— But he that filches from me my good name Robs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed!"

1000, About this time Brian Boroimhe, alias Borù, King of Munster, is said to have re-edified THE CATHEDRAL. Kincora, the palace of this patriot monarch, was situated near Killaloe. 1015, Soon after his death at the memorable battle of Clontarf, the citadel, or rath, of Killaloe, was destroyed and levelled to the ground; as was also that of his own Kincora.

In a volume of Irish poetry, transcribed by Ferral O'Gara, in 1650, is a very interesting "Lament," said to have been composed by Mac Liag, the secretary of Brian, on witnessing the desolation of his royal master's ancient palace. Mr. Hardiman has judiciously included it in his popular selection of "Irish Minstrelsy," and a finer specimen could not be offered of ancient Irish poetry, if the translator, your present antique correspondent, could have transfused its beauties as glowingly as he felt them. It opens thus :—

Kincora! where is thy Lord?

Ah! where is thy verdure of spring?

Where the nobles-the minstrels-the sons of the sword,
With whom we have feasted and drank at thy board ?—
Kincora ! where is thy king?

Where are thy heroed bands?
Thou queen of the emerald plain!

Where are thy golden-hilted brands

That gleamed in the gallant Dalcassians' hands,
And Brian's kingly train?

Where is the son of Borù,

That ne'er measured the presents he gave?
A hundred in battle victorious he slew,
And the rivers of Erin exultingly knew
When he breasted their foamy wave.

And Donough the good is gone,
And Conaing of the comely brow.
I feel-oh! I feel, as I stood alone,
Neither Cian nor Corc can hear my moan.-
Where where is my refuge now?

Where is their silent abode

Who once were the flower of Temora ?Fearless and fierce through the battle they strode, But their hands never rifled the altars of God ;Oh, their loss has deranged me, Kincora !

But sweet is the theme to our souls,
And welcome the praise of Borù;

With silent enjoyment my memory rolls

To the times when he gave me the first of the bowls;
Alas! that such honours I knew.

But all my hopes deceived me,
Yet I love thee for sorrow's sake;

In thy palace of jewels how oft he received me,-
But, Kincora! the fate that of Brian bereaved thee,
Hath orphaned Mac Liag of the lake.

Fain would I have done the justice to these extracts of communicating them in their good old Irish garb. The proprietors, however, of this "hebdomadal,” with becoming pride, intimated that as their work was for every nation, and as the eyes of all Europe and America, and perhaps, I added, those of the reluctant exiles of New South Wales, were fixed upon them, that, therefore, their language should be one more universally intelligible, than the too circumscribed dialect of the native. Be it so!

1061, Hugh O'Connor "of the gapped battle-axe," as he is styled the Irish annais, coming to Kincora, destroyed its citadel, plundered its salmon, filled up the fish ponds, and subsequently burned Killaloe.

1080, Killaloe was again burnt, as also in 1084, by the people of Conmacne.

1086, Turlogh, the son of Brian Boroimhe, died amidst the ruins of his father's palace, and was buried in the abbey of Killaloe.

1116, This town, with its churches, was again burnt.

1119, Murtogh O'Brien, King of Ireland, died in penitence, and was buried in the abbey of Killaloe, and in the same year Turlogh O'Connor led a predatory party hither, where they remained for some time consuming the provisions there stored.

1142, Conor O'Brien, King of Munster, died at Killaloe, whereupon Turlogh O'Brien was immediately elected his suc

cessor.

1152, About this time, or perhaps a few years later, the see of Killaloe was incorporated with the ancient bishopric of Roscrea, which was founded in 620. The successive prelates of Killaloe continued to hold the manor of Roscrea until the year 1280, when it was surrendered to the crown, by Matthew O'Hogan, the bishop, with the consent of his dean and chapter. 1154, Killaloe was burnt, and again in the following year. 1159, Gildas O'Kennedy, Chief of Ormond, died in his pilgrimage at this abbey.

1160, The CATHEDRAL was erected here, by Donald, King of Limerick, the founder of many of the neighbouring bishoprics and cathedrals.

1170, The people of Hy Maine (the O'Kellys) devastated Ormond, and destroyed the wooden church of Killaloe.

1177, Raymond le Gross, after his triumphant entry into Limerick, had conferences in the immediate vicinity of Killaloe, with Roderick, King of Connaught, and O'Brien, Prince of Thomond, both of whom, on that occasion, swore fealty to the King of England, and gave hostages in assurance of their faith.

1195, About this time the ancient see of Iniscathy was united to those of Killaloe and Roscrea, an accession which extended the union over no less than 100 parishes, besides chapelries.

1277, On Richard de Clare obtaining those grants, which have perpetuated his name in that of this county, the town of Killaloe was for a short time called Claresford, being then the only ford over the river Shannon, into Munster.

1358, The Bishop of Killaloe, was summoned to parliament, and again in 1374, 1377 and 1381.

1367, Lionel, Duke of Clarence, (third son of King Edward III.) who by intermarriage with Elizabeth de Burgo, the daughter of the Earl of Ulster, had acquired the title to a considerable portion of the country about Killaloe, was, in this year, recalled from the government of Ireland; “ whereupon," says Edmund Spenser, "there arose, in that part of Thomond, one of the O'Briens, called Morrogh na Ranagh, i. e. Maurice of the fern, or vast wild places, who gathering unto him all the relics of the discontented Irish eftsoons, surprised the Castle of Clare, burned and spoiled all the English there dwelling, and in a short space possessed all that country beyond the river of Shannon, and near adjoining, whence shortly breaking forth, like a sudden tempest, he overran all Munster and Connaught, breaking down all the holds and fortresses of the English, defacing and utterly subverting all corporate towns that were not strongly walled, for those he had no means nor engines to overthrow, neither, indeed, would he stay at all about them, but speedily ran forward counting his suddenness his most advantage, that he might overtake the English before they could fortify or gather themselves together. So in short space he clean wiped out many great towns, as first Inchequin, then KILLALOE, before called Clareford, also Thurles, Mourne, Buttevant, and many others, whose names I cannot remember, and of some of which there is now no memory nor sign remaining. Upon report of which there flocked to him all the sum of the Irish, out of all places, that ere long he had a mighty army, and thence marched forth into Leinster, where he wrought great outrages, wasting all the country where he went, for it was his policy to leave no hold behind him, but to make all plain and waste. On which he soon after created himself King of all Ireland, which before him I do not read that any did so generally, but Edward le Bruce."

1393, The Bishop of Killaloe, having memorialled the king, suggesting that his see was situated amongst the Irish, and in

such a state of destruction and decay, that it did not then afford the means of redeeming its temporalities from the crown, according to the usual scale, obtained an indulgence and remission of same.

1566, Maurice O'Brien had permission from the crown to receive and take to his own use the profits of the see of Killaloe, for six years previous to his being consecrated its bishop, "as and for his maintenance and sustentation in learning."

1629, The bishopric of Killaloe was valued at £20 sterling, at which time its principal dignities and benefices were also taxed. 1651, The officer and party, who had been stationed at Killaloe, by Lord Clanrickard, to defend that passage of the Shannon, abandoned his post either from treachery or cowardice, whereupon the English burst rapidly into the western province, and all provision being made for the attempt on Limerick, Ireton commenced the siege of that city in form.

1691, Sarsfield, as the last effort to uphold the cause of the Stuarts, resolved to intercept the cannon and other necessaries which were coming to the army of King William then lying before Limerick. With this object, at the head of a select body of cavalry, he crossed the Shannon at Killaloe, marched by private ways, well known to his men, lurked in the mountains, and waited the approach of the artillery, and its escort. "His motions were, however, not unknown to King William, who, thereupon, ordered Sir John Lanier to march with 500 horse, and meet the train. Lanier executed his orders, but not with due alacrity. In the mean time the artillery advanced within seven miles to the rear of the English camp. The officer who commanded the convoy apprehending no danger, encamped loosely on a plain, without precaution or discipline. The main body of the convoy was retired to rest, their horses at grass, their baggage and cannon carelessly disposed, when Sarsfield rushing suddenly upon them, in a moment cut their centinels and waggoners to pieces, fell on the convoy as they started from their sleep, and attempted to regain their horses, and slaughtered or dispersed the whole party. He now collected the cannon, carriages, waggons and ammunition; the cannon he filled with powder, fixing their mouths in the ground, and laying a train to the heap, fired it in his retreat. The hideous explosion announced the success of this enterprise to Lanier and his party, who when the havoc was already over arrived in view of the enemy's rear, and made a futile attempt to intercept them. Sarsfield was better acquainted with the country, and returned triumphantly to Limerick."*

1714, Died Dr. Vesey, Bishop of Killaloe. It has been said of him-"His estate was large before any of his promotions, and his heart too large to make any additions to it. The thes of a parish belonging to his see he never would receive, but gave them entirely to his curate."

1752, The see of Killaloe was united to that of Kilfenora, whereby the diocese was extended over portions of six counties, comprising 11,081 acres of church lands, while its annual income has been returned as £4,600.

sor.

Teste meipsum.

J. D.

ANCIENT IRISH BIOGRAPHY.-No. XXII.

MALACHY I.

THE death of Hugh V., in the year 819, led to the succession of a monarch as little deserving of notice or respect for his personal character as his worthless and contemptible predecesThis prince was named Connor; he was the son of Donough, who died in 797. His reign, which lasted fourteen years, presents nothing deserving attention, but the same vices of domestic dissention, and the same miseries of foreign invasion that marked the preceding one. Instead of reconciling the petty feuds of his subjects, he appears rather to have sanctioned them by his own example, for he fought a pitched battle with some of the northern chiefs, on the trifling pretext of having received offence, and on no occasion does he appear to have exerted himself against the common enemy. During his reign the Danes continued their ravages, and commenced to form permanent settlements in the country, by building fortresses for the security of their plunder and forces; we perceive the remains of those military positions in the large circular mounds, surrounded generally by intrenchments, still standing in many places, and known as Danes' Forts, or, Danes' Raths. Many places of note were plundered and destroyed by them in various districts, among the rest were Lismore, Clonard, Cork, Cashel, and Dundaleath-glass, now called Donaghadee, where there was then a famous university. The only strenuous effort to reThere is a highly graphic and most interesting narrative of this exploit in "The Boyne Water," one of the admir able national novels of our countryman, M, Basim,

sist their power, recorded at this period, was made by the people of Leinster, who collected their forces and fought a desperate battle with them at Druim-Conla, but were at length defeated, owing to the death of one of their leaders, a prince of the O'Toole family. After this the province of Leinster suffered dreadful oppression from the vindictive proceedings of the Danes. Connor died in the year 833, and is said to have died from his unhappiness at the miseries of his kingdom; but the general tenor of his life displays none of that acute sensibility to its wrongs which would justify the statement, and at all events we cannot honour such sorrow in a man who might have avenged if he could not prevent the sufferings he deplored. Niall III. succeeded Connor. He was the son of Hugh V. He appears to have been a prince of a brave and generous disposition, and as if his accession had diffused a new spirit into his subjects, we find them shortly after making general efforts, throughout the kingdom, to break the yoke of the Danes. It is not improbable, however, that this was also, in some degree, owing to the circumstance that the foreigners were embarrassed by the unexpected hostility of a party of marauders like themselves. This arose from the Normans, stimulated by the successes of the Danes and Norwegians, having fitted out a fleet, part of which arrived about this time, in the Boyne, and the remainder, to the amount of forty sail, in the Liffey, where the troops were landed, and commenced to plunder whatever Danish rapacity had spared; they extended their expedition into the provinces, but their progress alarmed the Danes, who were resolved to preserve a monopoly in aggression, and, accordingly, under the command of Turgesius, their acknowledged chief, soon marched against them, and drove them to their ships, which were then lying in the Shannon, in the neighbourhood of which the battle was fought. This may have roused the Irish to a sense of their own duty, and indicated to them the course they should pursue. Malachy, King of Meath, a nephew of the late monarch, Connor, has the honour of commencing this movement. He boldly attacked the Danes in his dominion, and obtained a complete victory, killing seven hundred of the enemy, and Saxold, one of their best generals. Upon this the Munster and Leinster Princes joined their forces, and, likewise, obtained a complete victory, killing the Earl of Tomair, heir to the crown of Denmark, and twelve hundred of the Danes. The King of Munster also, himself, drove the Danes from Cashel, after an engagement in which he killed five hundred of them. About the same time, the people of Tyrconnel gained a signal victory, in which they killed nearly all the Danes on the spot; and Malachy added another triumph to that he had already gained, by killing seventeen hundred of them in one en gagement. Still the Danes clung to the country, and, having obtained re-inforcements, attacked the city of Dublin which they obtained possession of, and then fortified by the erection of a strong castle. At this period the monarch first distinguished himself against them. It appears that he had collected an army for the purpose of enforcing his authority in the province of Leinster, respecting some question of succession among the petty chiefs, and, although this was a most unworthy occupation for his forces at such a moment, he redeemed his error by marching against the foreigners, whom he engaged in a pitched battle, and completely defeated. It must be a matter of surprise that after such repeated successes the Irish leaders did not make a combined effort at once to clear the country of the Danes, and adopt measures to prevent future invasion, as the English did, under similar circumstances, during the reign of Alfred; perhaps, however, it must be accounted for by the disgraceful feuds among the princes, to which I have already adverted. Had Niall lived long enough to follow up the advantage he gained by his victory over the enemy, having his energies roused, and his attention directed to their expulsion, it is probable that he would have attempted it and succeeded. He died, however, too soon to enjoy the fame he had begun to gain, or to confer any great benefit on his country. The occasion of his death proves that he deserved our esteem; he was crossing the River Callan, with his retinue, and the ford having been rendered difficult by a great flood, he directed a gentleman to try for a passage in a certain part; this individual was washed off his horse, and the king, unable to persuade the others to attempt to rescue him, made a gallant effort himself, which was rendered fruitless and fatal by the bank giving way under his horse, and both being precipitated into the current, where they were drowned. It was from this melancholy, but most honourable termination of his life, that he was surnamed Caille, from the river in which the accident occurred. This was in the thirteenth year of his reign.