to the celebrated "Hanseatic league," for its protection and advancement-a treaty to which seventy-two cities are said to have been parties, but which, properly speaking, has ceased to exist for more than two centuries, and is now confined to the cities of Lubec, Hamburg, and Bremen.

The discovery of the Mariner's Compass*, which is generally attributed to Flavio Gioia, a citizen of the once celebrated maritime republic of Amalfi, about the year 1302, gave, as it has been truly said, to man the dominion of the sea, and marked the commencement of a new era in the history of commerce and navigation. The use of the compass rapidly spread, but notwithstanding the advantages which it afforded, navigation, during the remainder of the fourteenth century, continued at a low ebb. "A voyage from the Mediterranean to the Baltic," we are told, was in those days "so formidable an undertaking, that seafaring men accounted it too long to be performed out and home in one season, and gladly embraced the opportunity afforded by the warehouses of Bruges, in the Netherlands, (which owed its increase to its adoption as an intermediate port for vessels from the north and south of Europe,) for landing their cargo from the south, and taking on board another from the north, without the delay of a passage through the Sound. This plan of dividing the voyages to the north, ceased, in a great measure, in the fifteenth century, because the improvement in seamanship made it easy for vessels to proceed direct to Hamburg, Copenhagen, and other northern ports."

On the nature and extent of the British commerce in the fourteenth century, a gleam of light is thrown by a record of the exports and imports in the twentyeighth year of Edward the Third (1355), from which it appears, that the former consisted of wool, coarse cloths, and leather, which were valued at 294,1847. 178. 2d., including a custom-duty of 215l. 13s. 7d. The imports comprised fine cloths, linen, mercery, wine, wax, and groceries, of the trifling value of 38,970l. 3s. 6d., including a custom-duty of 2851. Edward the Third, perceiving the real cause of the prosperity and opulence of Flanders, made various efforts during his reign, to excite a commercial spirit amongst his subjects, but in despite of his endeavours, navigation and industry continued to slumber; and it was not until the reign of Henry the Seventh, nearly a century and a half after, that the advantages arising from our extent of coast and abundance of fuel began to be brought into profitable operation in England.

During this interval, however, various efforts were made by our kings to foster the growth of the mercantile marine, on the aid of which, as we have explained in our account of the Royal Navy, they were almost solely dependent in time of war. For the promotion of this object, in 1449, Henry the Sixth granted several privileges to one John Traverner of Hull, who had built, according to the old record, the largest ship yet seen in England, which the king was pleased to call, the Grace Dieu Carrack. A licence was granted to this individual to export therein, "wool, tin, skins, leather, and other merchandise, from the ports of London, Southampton, Hull, and Sandwich, belonging either to English or foreign merchants; and freely to carry the said merchandise through the Straits of Marocco into Italy, he paying aliens' duty on the same, and upon firm expectation that he would, in return, bring some such merchandise of other nations as were most wanted in England, as bow-staves, wax, &c., whereby a great increase of the duties and customs to the crown would ensue, and much gain to the subject." Previously to this, according to Hakluyt, from a valuation of some Spanish prizes, we find that the highest value of commercial shipping, was then 30s. sterling per ton, including their "furniture." In this reign, a company of London merchants sent several ships laden with wool, cloth, and other merchandise, valued at 24,0007. (then a very large sum), to trade to the western parts of Marocco, but they were intercepted and taken by the Genoese, who were jealous of our interference with their commerce. The owners were authorized to make reprisals upon the aggressors whenever they had an opportunity, but no steps were taken by the English government in the matter.

British merchant-vessels seem then very rarely to have exceeded the burden of 200 tons. We read, however, in 1455, of a Swedish ship of 1000 tons, with a crew of 120 men, having a licence to trade to English ports; but the computation of tonnage must have been extremely vague. * See Saturday Magazine, Vol. III., p. 115.

+ Ibid Vol. IV., p. 73.

In the following reign, a considerable advance seems to have been made in the size of merchant-ships, for according to the inscription on the tomb of that “princely merchant," William Canning of Bristol, in Redcliffe church in that city, (date 1474,) we learn, that in consequence of "his having forfeited the king's peace," he was ordered to pay 3000 marks, in lieu of which, Edward the Fourth took 2470 tons of shipping, amongst which there was a ship of 900 tons, another of 500 tons, and one of 400 tons: but these vessels must clearly have been built by Canning expressly for the Royal service, if we consider the diminutive size of merchant-ships which prevailed during the greater part of the following century.

At the commencement of the reign of Henry VII. (1485,) English merchants first sent their ships to trade regularly with the ports of Italy, and a consul was thereupon appointed at Florence, for the protection of their interests.

The progress of the Portuguese along the coast of Africa, their discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, and their accomplishment of the first regular voyage to India by that route twelve years after, with the still more important discoveries of Columbus, opened a new and boundless field for the extension of navigation, commerce, and manufactures. The subsequent discoveries of our own countrymen, in their pursuit after a North-west passage to India, of the whole coast of North America, had, however, then the most powerful effect on British commerce, and led to the formation of the whale-fisheries of Spitzbergen and Greenland; yet it has been stated, on the authority of Sir William Cecil, a London merchant, that, previously to this, there were not above four merchant-vessels exceeding the burden of 120 tons belonging to the Thames early in the reign of Henry VIII., and that "there was not a city in Europe, having the occupying that London had, that was so slenderly provided with ships." It appears from a record in the Exchequer, that, in 1534, the exports of all England did not exceed 900,000l., and that the imports only amounted to 700,000Z§ An act was passed in this reign, to encourage merchants to build ships for their service fit for the purposes of war; such ships being exempted from certain duties, their owners receiving from the government twelve shillings per ton per month for their use when occasion needed. This must have caused a considerable increase in the burden of merchant-vessels.

But it was in the reign of Elizabeth, that British commerce began to assume any great degree of importance. In the first year of this reign, (1559,) in consequence of the irregular manner in which the Customs-duties were collected in the Port of London, an Act was passed to compel all persons to land their goods at certain places; and, about the same time, a new Custom-house was erected near the western boundary of the Tower. This structure, of which we give an Engraving, (page 161,) presents a curious contrast to the immense building || now devoted to the same purposes: it was totally destroyed by the great fire of 1666, a calamity which befel two subsequent customhouses which were erected on the same site.

In 1575 the number of merchant-vessels in England, above 100 tons burden, was only 135, and 696 between 40 and 100 tons. About this time the passage to Archangel was discovered, and a trade opened with Russia, a region which had previously been literally a terra incognita in this country. Companies were also incorporated under Royal Charter, to extend the intercourse with Turkey, and with Guinea, and other places on the coast of Africa. The old historian, Harrison says, that "there were then few merchant-ships of the first and second sort, being apparelled and made ready to sail, that were not worth 10007., or 3000 ducats at the least." Such was the enterprise of the English merchants in this reign, that numerous privateers were fitted out to harass the Spaniards; one of which was of the burden of 800 tons, the largest ship, not of the Royal navy, which had, up to that period (1597), been built. At the death of the Queen, however, in 1603, it is asserted by many writers, that there were only four merchant-ships in England of the burden of 400 tons.

The reign of Elizabeth was, perhaps, most distinguished by the formation of the East India Company, and the opening of a commercial intercourse between Great Britain and the East. The first association for this purpose, which was formed in London in 1599, possessed a capital of See Saturday Magazine, Vol. III., p. 209.

Ibid. Vol. II., p. 185.

For an account of the progressive rise of the Customs in Great Britain, see Vol. II. page 187.

But we must revert to our sketch of the progress of navigation in the seventeenth century.

In the sea-fights with Holland, during the time of the Commonwealth, our mercantile navy was greatly distinguished, as well as in single actions with the Barbary pirates. About the middle of the century," remarks Anderson, "it had been observed with concern, that the merchants of England, for several years past, had usually freighted the Hollanders' shipping, for bringing home their own merchandise, because their freight was at a lower rate than that of English ships. The Dutch shipping were, therefore, made use of even for importing our own American products, whilst our own shipping lay rotting in our harbours; our mariners also, for want of employment at home, went into the service of the Hollanders." In order to remedy this disastrous state of things, the first Navigation Law was passed by the long Parliament in 1651, which gave rise, shortly after the Restoration in 1660, to the celebrated Navigation Act, which remained in force, with only a partial deviation, until 1823, when the present "Reciprocity system" was brought into operation.

In 1660, only 140,000 tons of shipping belonged to all the ports of Great Britain; and 95,266 tons cleared outwards; but the adoption of the restrictive system proved so beneficial, that at the period of the Revolution in 1688, our mercantile marine had nearly doubled, and 190,533 tons of shipping cleared outwards. In 1694, the suburbs to the east of the Tower, in consequence of the increase of commerce and navigation, had become so populous, (notwithstanding the fearful ravages of the Great Plague in that district,) that a new parish was constituted, under the name of St. John Wapping. In 1700, the imports into Great Britain were valued at £5,970,175, whilst our exports in the same year were £7,302,716.

The first accurate account of the extent of our com

mercial navy was obtained in 1702, by the commissioners of the Customs, from which it appears, that there then belonged to all the ports in England and Wales, 3281 vessels, of the estimated burden of 261,222 tons, employing 27,196 men, and carrying 5660 guns. Of these there belonged to

.

Vessels.

Tons.

560 .. 84,882

165 ... 17,338 102.. 8,619

Men.

10,065

2,359

1,101

London Bristol Liverpool The peace of Utrecht gave fresh vigour to trade; and, in 1713, our shipping had increased to 421,000 tons, after which its progress was very gradual, for in 1739 it had only augmented one-seventh. The increase of our exports during this period was much more rapid, being more than one-fourth, viz. from 7,300,000l. to 10,000,000l. In the year 1729, 8889 vessels entered the Port of London, of which number 1839 British, and 213 Foreign vessels, were from foreign parts, the rest being coasters.

At the accession of George III., in 1760, the tonnage of merchant-vessels cleared outwards was, English 540,241, Foreign 107,237. In the same year our exports were valued at 15,781,1757., and our imports at 9,832,8021. The increase during the remainder of the century was extremely great. In 1789 the amount of British tonnage had trebled since 1760; our imports had nearly doubled, but our exports had increased little more than a fifth. In 1802, when 'Mr. Addington pronounced "the commerce of the country to be in a state of unexampled prosperity," the official value* of our imports amounted to about thirtyone millions, and our exports were more than forty-one millions sterling! So amazing an increase, in the space of forty years, was never paralleled in the history of any nation. In 1805, the number of vessels belonging to the several ports of Great Britain and Ireland, was 19,027, which were of an aggregate burden of 2,086,489 tons, and navigated by 142,245 men and boys; besides 3014 ships, of the burden of 190,953 tons, belonging to the Colonies.

On the 31st of December, 1832, according to a Parliamentary Return, our commercial navy was as follows:No. of Vessels. Tons.

Men.

United Kingdom. . 19,143 . . 2,225,980 134,588
Isles of Guernsey,
521 .. 35,880 .. 3,844
Jersey, and Man, S
British Plantations. 4,771.. 356,208 23,202

Total.. 24,435.. 2,618,068 . . 161,634

The official value generally differs widely from the real value, being computed upon a scale laid down for the regulation of the officers of the customs, more than a century ago; it, however, affords a means of comparison between different periods.

This is double the extent of the shipping of the United States, and nearly triple that of France.

Of the enormous extent of our coasting-trade, some idea may be formed, when we state, that during the year 1833, 130,706 vessels, of the burden of 10,302,500 tons, cleared outwards in the different ports of the United Kingdom.

During the same period 12,982 ships, of the registered burden of 2,167,797 tons, cleared outwards for foreign parts from the various ports of the United Kingdom. The total official value of our exports, in the year 1832, was 76,071,5721.; the imports from foreign countries during the same period, being 44,586,2417.

THE PORT OF LONDON.

PROBABLY, the most interesting view in the metropolis to a stranger, is that from the eastern parapet of London bridge. The "landsman" especially, gazes with feelings of wonder on the vast, and apparently interminable, forest of masts, which rise with an effect indescribably picturesque and imposing on the broad and tide-rippled haven of the majestic Thames. Few things, perhaps, are better calculated to impress the mind with a sense of our commercial There may be seen the flags of almost every civilized greatness, than an inspection of this immense Port. nation on the globe. The clumsy and grotesque, though bright and gaudy craft of the "lubberly Dutchman;" the taut-rigged Yankee; the piratical-looking Spanish lugger; the smart Frenchman; the rakish and suspicious Mediterranean trader; the dingy collier; the dashing steamer; the Kentish Hoy; the splendid "free trader;" and the stately Indiaman; with a host of other vessels of various countries and classes, compose a scene, which for variety and extent, is unequalled in the world. And then the human inhabitants of this vast floating city. . . . . all indeed, combine to afford an almost boundless field for reflection to a

contemplative mind. We are led to remember, that our country's greatness has arisen from her being the Ocean we are mentally carried to the far-distant scenes of peril Queen, and whilst we reflect that each ship has a history, and, adventure, in which our countrymen, perhaps, our friends, have borne so distinguished a part.

The scene on the river extends for a space of more than four miles, comprising what are called the Upper, Middle, and Lower Pools, and a portion of Limehouse Reach. These divisions are generally crowded with shipping; the Middle and Lower Pools being principally devoted to the coal trade. Both banks of the river, as far as the termination of the Lower Pool, exhibit one continued range of warehouses, and other buildings appropriated to commercial purposes; but the chief seat of business lies on the northern side. The most interesting objects on that side, are the immense pile of the Custom House; the Tower, associated with so much that is memorable in British history; and the principal Docks and Building-yards. On the southern side, at Rotherhithe, are situated most of the granaries for the supply of the vast population of the metropolis, one of which, belonging to Messrs. Scott & Co., from its immense magnitude, forms a very conspicuous object, and is called on the river "the granary;" in this neighbourhood is the entrance to the Tunnel, and several Docks. The extensive space on the southern side of Limehouse Reach, extending to the Royal Yard at Deptford, which during the war was a busy scene of human industry-at Deptford especially, many thousand persons were employed-is now almost deserted and desolate.

A short distance above the unrivalled national Hospital, at Greenwich, are moored two large ships, respectively appropriated to the purposes of a nursery and a floating hospital for seamen, viz., the "Marine Society," on board the Iphigenia frigate, and the "Seamen's Hospital, for sailors of all nations," on board the Dreadnought 104.

• MARINE SOCIETY. This admirable and patriotic institution has now become of national importance. It rears up the children of the poor, and destitute orphans, in habits of virtue and active industry, and thousands, who, if they had not thus been rescued from destitution, ignorance and vice, would probably have followed the paths of idleness and infamy, have by its means been made useful and worthy members of society. Since the Society originated in 1756, it has trained up 78,595 individuals for the sea-service, some of whom we are told, "have risen to rank and considerable estimation." A certain number of widows of captains and lieutenants in the navy, whose indigent circumstances justify an application to the Committee, are also annually relieved.

+ SEAMEN'S HOSPITAL. This institution, since its establishment in 1821, has afforded medical and surgical relief to 21,000 mariners,

collective burden of 573,000 tons, now belong to London, exclusive of the immense number of craft and other unregistered vessels previously enumerated.

Of the value and extent of the fishing-trade, the following interesting particulars have been given in the Encyclopædia Britannica:-" No city in the world is better and more plentifully supplied with fish, than London. Turbot and brill are carried there from the coast of Holland; salmon from the rivers in Scotland and Ireland,-a few, however, are caught in the Thames,-at the mouth of which, mackerel and cod-fish are taken.

In 1828, the following calculation was made of the quantity of fish sold at Billingsgate.

Plaice and skates

Turbot

Fresh cod.

Herrings

Haddocks.
Mackerel

Fresh salmon
Lobsters..

50,754 bushels. 87,958 ditto. 447,130 ditto. 3,336,407 ditto.

482,493 ditto.

3,076,700 ditto.

45,446 ditto. 1,954,600 ditto.

"To supply the actual demands of the people with this food, it required 3827 vessels; the number of fishermen, therefore, exclusively devoted to this particular business, and subservient to that metropolis alone, is truly immense.'

The Customs-duty collected in the port of London, amounts to more than half the entire customs of the United Kingdom-exceeding ten millions annually. In a recent publication, it has been calculated that "above 40,000 waggons, and other carriages, including their repeated journeys, arrive and depart from the metropolis, laden in both instances with articles of domestic or foreign merchandise; occasioning a transit, including cattle and provisions sent for the consumption of the inhabitants, of more than 50,000,000l. worth of goods, to and from the inland markets; making with the imports, a sum of 120,000,000l. worth of property annually moving to and from the metropolis."

THE DOCKS

And Warehousing Establishments of the Port of London, in point of capacity and convenience, are unequalled. Notwithstanding the vast and increasing commerce of the metropolis, however, it was not until towards the end of the last century, that the idea of forming wet-docks seems to have been seriously entertained. This is the more remarkable, as a wet-dock had been formed at the then insignificant port of Liverpool, so early as the year 1708. In 1793, the West India Docks were first projected, and in the following year, at a general meeting of the merchants and ship-owners of London, the construction of wet-docks was finally resolved upon. But such was the opposition the project experienced from the corporation of London, and private interests, that it was not until 1798, that an Act of Parliament was obtained. Previously to that period, the losses sustained in consequence of the inadequate accommodation, and unprotected state of the port, were exceedingly serious. At certain seasons, the river was absolutely blocked up with vessels, most of which had to discharge their cargoes into lighters; and the annual loss sustained from robberies alone, was computed to amount to half a million sterling. The marine depredators, who were as numerous as they were daring, were divided into various classes, as "river-pirates," light and heavy-horsemen," "mud-larks," "copemen," "scuffle-hunters," &c. The river or night pirates seem to have conducted their operations with the most reckless daring. They have been frequently known to weigh a ship's anchor, hoist it with the cable into a boat, and when discovered, to hail the captain, tell him of his loss, coolly bid him good night, and row away. They also cut small craft and lighters adrift, following them till they ran ashore, when they generally succeeded in carrying off the whole of the freight. Many of the "light-horsemen" regularly made five-guineas a night, and an apprentice to what was called a "game-waterman," is said to have been known to keep a country-house and a saddle-horse! In these days of security and improvement, it appears quite incredible that such a state of things should have been submitted to so long. In 1797, a strong check was put to the proceedings of these marauders, by the establishment of a system of marine police, which was so successful, that during the first year, the saving to the West India merchants alone was computed to amount to 100,0007.; and

no less than 2200 culprits were convicted of misdemeanours on the river during the same period.

The WEST INDIA DOCKS, which were commenced in February, 1800, and partially opened on the 3rd of August, 1802, were the first, and are still the most extensive docks, not only in this port but in the world. They extend across the northern extremity of the Isle of Dogs, from Blackwall to Limehouse, having a communication with the river by spacious basins at either extremity. This great public establishment originally consisted of an export and import dock; but, in 1829, the south dock, a spacious canal for shipping of the largest class, which had originally been constructed to facilitate the navigation of the Thames, was purchased by the West India Dock Company for 120,0007. The north, or Import Dock, contains nearly thirty acres under water, being 870 yards long by 166 wide. The Export Dock is of the same length, but only 135 yards in width, and comprises an area of about 25 acres. The South Dock is 1183 yards (nearly three-quarters of a mile) long; it runs parallel to the others, and its lock-gates are 45 feet in width. The three docks are capable of admitting 650 vessels, of from 250 to 500 tons. The entire area occupied by the docks and warehouses consists of more than 295 acres, enclosed (with the exception of the South Dock,) by a lofty wall, five feet thick, When originally opened, such is the extent of the Import Dock, that although the water was admitted at an average rate of 800 gallons per second, the space was not filled to the required depth, about 24 feet, for 10 hours.

The immense ranges of warehouses which divide the Import and Export Docks are not less deserving of notice than the latter; they are chiefly filled with rum, brandy, and colonial produce, and in the warehouses partly surrounding the Import Dock, there is stowageroom for 160,000 hogsheads of sugar, besides a large quantity of coffee, &c. In these warehouses, and under the spacious sheds surrounding the quays, 148,563 casks of sugar, 70,875 barrels and 433,648 bags of coffee, 35, 158 pipes of rum and Madeira wine, 14,021 logs of mahogany, and 21,350 tons of logwood, besides other merchandise, have been deposited at one time. The West India Dock Company's capital is 1,380,0007., and, in consequence of all West India ships trading to the Port of London, having been compelled to frequent these docks for twenty years after their formation, the profits during that period were immense.

The LONDON DOCKS, at Wapping, which were first opened in 1805, are another splendid instance of commercial enterprise. They were originally intended for vessels laden with wine, brandy, tobacco, and rice, respecting which they possessed exclusive privileges for a period of twenty years, but they are now not appropriated to any particular trade. It was found necessary to remove more than 1300 houses in constructing these docks, which embrace within the walls an area of 71 acres, about 25 of which are under water. The vaults and warehouses here are of extraordinary dimensions. The largest, or, as it is called, the “Great Tobacco Warehouse," is calculated to contain 24,000 hogsheads of tobacco, and covers nearly five acres of ground. This enormous structure is wholly under the control of the officers of Government, the Dock Company merely receiving the warehouse charges. There are also other warehouses of immense extent. The vaults which extend under these buildings have long been classed amongst the " sights" of the metropolis,-more than 65,000 pipes of wine and spirits can be stowed in these vast cellars. The London Docks have accommodation for more than 200 merchantmen at one time. A new entrance, on a very improved plan, with a spacious basin and locks, 1200 feet in length, has recently been opened, nearly a mile lower down the river than the original entrance. This very important improvement was effected at a cost of 180,000l.; the capital of the Company exceeds 3,250,0007.

The EAST INDIA DOCKS, at Blackwall, were next constructed. This establishment, which was chiefly undertaken for the convenience of the East India Company's ships, was completed in 1806, at a cost of 500,000l. It consists of an export and import dock, which, with the entrance-basin, contain nearly 30 acres under water. The entrance-lock is 210 feet long, and the dock-gates 48 feet wide. An extensive cast iron wharf, 750 feet in length, has just been completed along the river-front of the Docks, for the accommodation of steam-vessels of all classes, at all states of the tide: more than 900 tons of iron have been used in this novel and interesting work.