Widespread ignorance, pauperism, and crime in a the falsity of the proposition that that country is read Blood-stains upon the clothing of a man accused o Signs are merely indications or always open to doubt. What is k evidence is a collection of a priori most suspicious circumstances are of If, for instance, the blood-stains upo accused of murder are clearly acco way than by the supposition of g the validity of the argument. The same signs are frequently ends. One writer regards strikes as of trades unions is pernicious; an phenomena as signs that the trades working classes power to assert maintain their rights. The more numerous the signs, th arguments for the truth of a propos (3) Authority, or what books have said, irrespective of particula or falsity of a proposition, and tes of witnesses, have been classified as but it is clear that authority and te proof, or signs, or proof by exan nature of the proof given by the a ness testifying. When authorities statement, reference should be mad and page; and in general only thos referred to who are acknowledged t on the subject, and whose works, i Concurrence of authorities or of w of any matter gives special force to (4) Examples of the truth of a has once happened under certain conditi to happen again under like condition amples as proof and illustration has Isolated Paragraph, p. 28). When the adduced is sufficiently large to convinc class to which they belong possess the proof is called Induction. If, for ins several hundreds of roses have the sa and stamens, and conclude that all ros have the same number of petals and examined, we have a case of Induc Isolated Paragraph, p. 50). The nu necessary to make the proof of a pro depends upon the nature of the propo and must be decided in each case as it most frequent of faults in writing is a from too few examples. It is eviden cite the cases of Homer and Milton in p tion that blindness induces the growth in a man. A form of the argument which asserts that, if a principle is t case, much more will it be true in the conditions are more favorable. This is ment a fortiori. (5) In regard to refutation, the fo may be useful: — (a) Often there are valid objectio plan. These should be candidly admi either as necessarily incident to any pla to be operative under the plan propos other. (b) An objection should be fairly s ertain conditions may be expected When the number of examples e to convince us that the whole ¦ possess the same property, the If, for instance, we find that have the same number of petals that all roses of the same class petals and stamens as those of Induction (see also The The number of examples of of a proposition conclusive the proposition to be proved, One of the 1 case as it arises. riting is a hasty generalization is evidently not sufficient to Hilton in proof of the proposi he growth of the poetic spirit argument by example is that ciple is true in an admitted ue in the case cited when the This is known as the argu n, the following suggestions a proposed objections to lly admitted, but explained ɔ any plan, or as less likely proposed than under any 1 ated before its reobjection much labor expended on a weak greater attention to the objection tha (d) The force of a proof by exam if it is shown that the cause which the result in the example cited, is dif assigned. (e) An argument is refuted if it not follow from the facts on which it (f) In some cases a proposition i by reducing it to an alternative, and two possible cases. Thus the prop labor deprives free laborers of work' These convicts, before they were imprisoned, were e they had to be supported at the expense of free labor, prison relieves free labor of the burden of their co workers before their imprisonment, they competed make them work while in prison does not, therefore respect; whereas enforcing idleness upon them would their support upon free labor. (g) One presumption may be ov The presumption is in favor of establ against a change, but it is also in fa charitable, and likely to promote w sumptions are sometimes in conflict overthrow another. 3. The Order of Arg In general, the best order of argum cated in the preceding section, na secondly, signs, testimony, and autho amples. Objections may be answere essay (either at the beginning or at t be answered separately at those po where they would naturally arise. T arguments, or with overthrowing the the order, after that, being in general indicated above, closing with the stron introduction will usually consist of plain statement of the proposition, w the writer's interpretation of the term or some other obviously preparatory m to the feelings is to be made the place sion, when, if at all, the reader is pr a sufficient degree to receive it. Specimen outlines in Argumentation may be found in outlining are provided in Appendix C 1. Subjects for long Appendix G. throwing the strongest objection, ng in general the order of climax, with the strongest argument. The y consist of nothing more than a proposition, with an explanation of on of the terms of the proposition, preparatory matter. If an appeal made the place for it is the conclu the reader is presumably aroused to receive it. entation may be found in Appendix A 12. Subjects for dix C 1. Subjects for longer essays may be selected from PART II. THEORY OF THE PA Obviously the first question to be the theory of the paragraph is, W all? Why should not the essay be commonly does write it) in an unbro tences? Why divide it into senten One answer to these questions is, or written matter looks more attrac than when not thus diversified. ΤΙ as landmarks for the reader's eye, e place again if he should happen to t This reason, as far as it goes, is should never be left out of consider improbable that many writers have as a practical rule of composition the phenomena of paragraphing, it is As the first, it leaves the place and to the caprice of the writer; as tl relation of the paragraph to the e In either case the essay is treated a of words which may be divided as in another. We need, therefore, to the answer to the question, Why pa The proper method of inquiry. |