CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC.

The rules for capitalization, punctuation, etc., given in grammars and rhetorics are, of purpose, laid down somewhat dogmatically. In actual practice no such uniformity can be found. Each publishing firm, each magazine and each newspaper has its own rules, - rules which its editors follow and impose, so far as possible, on all who supply it with manuscript. We shall first present the general rules for capitals and for the six most common marks of punctuation, and then shall show some of the variations from those rules in actual practice, by means of extracts from the 'cards' of representative daily papers.

General Rules for Capitals.

The following words should begin with capitals :

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, and paragraph.

2. The first word after a period; and, usually, after the interrogation point and the exclamation point.

3. Divine names; as, God, Jehovah, the Supreme Being. 4. Proper names of persons, places, rivers, oceans, ships; as, Franklin, Chicago, Mississippi, Atlantic, the Monitor,

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, English, French, Roman, American.

6. The first word of an exact quotation in a direct form; as, he said, 'There will be war.'

7. The pronoun I and the interjection O!

8. Terms of great historical importance; as, the Reformation, the Civil War, the Whigs, the Revolution.

General Rules for Punctuation.

The comma, semi-colon, and colon mark the three degrees of separation in the parts of a sentence; the comma the smallest degree, the semi-colon a greater degree, and the colon the greatest degree. To illustrate:

Rhetoric is based upon Logic, Grammar, and Esthetics. Rhetoric is based upon Logic, which deals with the laws of thought; upon Grammar, which presents the facts and rules of correct language; and upon Esthetics, which investigates the principles of beauty.

Rhetoric is based upon the following sciences: Logic, which deals with the laws of thought; Grammar, which presents the facts and rules of correct language; and Esthetics, which investigates the principles of beauty.

Rules for the Comma.

A comma is used in the following instances:

1. To separate grammatically independent elements from the context; as, 'Rejoice, young man!'

2. To separate intermediate, transposed, and parenthetical elements from the context; as, 'Even good men, they say, sometimes act like brutes.'

3. To separate expressions in apposition from the con

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text; as, Washington, the first President, served two terms.'

4. To separate contrasted words or phrases, and words or phrases in pairs; as, 'We live in deeds, not years.' 'Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote.'

5. To mark the omission of words; as, 'In war he was warlike; in peace, peaceable.'

6. Before short and informal quotations; as, 'He shouted, "Come in!""

NOTE. It is quite possible to use the comma too frequently; as, 'It is well known, that, when water is cooled, below a certain point, contraction ceases, and expansion begins.' Better: 'It is well known that when water is cooled below a certain point, contraction ceases and expansion begins.'

Rules for the Semi-Colon.

A semi-colon is used in the following instances:

1. To separate members of a compound sentence, when they are complex or loosely connected, or when they contain

commas.

2. To separate short sentences closely connected in meaning.

3. To introduce an example, before as.

4. To separate clauses having a common dependence. Illustrations of these rules: 'Science declares that no particle of matter can be destroyed; that each atom has its place in the universe; and that, in seeking that place, each obeys certain fixed laws.' 'When education shall be made a qualification for suffrage; when politicians shall give place to statesmen; then, and not till then, will the highest development of our government be reached.'

Rules for the Colon.

The colon is used in the following instances:

1. To introduce several particulars complex in form, in apposition to a general term, and separated from one another by semi-colons. (Already illustrated.)

2. To introduce long formal quotations. If the quotation begins a new paragraph a dash should be used instead of a colon.

Rules for the Period.

The period is used in the following instances: —
1. To mark the completion of a declarative sentence.
2. After abbreviations; as, D.D., LL.D., Vt., Ala.

Rules for the Interrogation Point.

The interrogation point is used

1. After every direct question; as, 'Will you come?' 'You have been to Niagara?' 'When was such a promise made? By whom?'

2. In parentheses to express doubt; as, 'In the time of Homer, 850 (?) B.C.'

Rules for the Exclamation Point.

The exclamation point is used

1. To express strong emotion; as, 'He is dead, the sweet musician!'

2. To express doubt or sarcasm; as, 'That man a poet!' 3. After interjections; as 'Oh !' 'O my Country!"

Variations from the Rules.

The explanation of the abbreviations used is as follows:

1. After an introduction to an extract or quotation, use a colon if the voice naturally falls; as, "He spoke as follows:" If the stop is not a complete one, use a comma, except when the paragraph closes, when a dash should be used. The following will illustrate:

A dispatch from Los Angeles says, "The yield of grapes," etc. Says the editor [Trans.]

2. Omit comma in cases like the following: John Smith of New York, Mr. and Mrs. Brown of Detroit, and Mr. Jones of Chicago. In lists of names use only the comma after the town, except in cases where phrases occur describing the persons or their business, in which case use the comma and semicolon. Thus James Brown of No. 272 Wabash Avenue, Chicago; W. D. Howells, the popular novelist, of Boston; and Labouchère, editor of London Truth, were present. [Trib.]

3. Use comma before "and," "or," "nor," etc., when they connect three or more nouns, adjectives, etc.; as John, James, and Henry leave town next week; he was kicked, and cuffed, and beaten. [Trib.]

4. Use the dash before and colon after viz., to wit, namely, etc. [Trib.]