He has divided his work into a number of Differtations, of which fix are now publifhed in this first volume, and the remainder referved for future publication.

The first Differtation contains a Preliminary Difcourfe on the Influence of Religion on States in general, and on the Influence of Christianity in particular. Among the Romans, religion operated rather on the constitution of the state than on private laws. The Romans feparated morality and religious rites, and confidered the Jatter as the bands of civil Society, The Chriftians, on the contrary, regarded morality preferably to rites. Hence the averfion of the Romans to the Chriftians.

The fecond Differtation treats of fuch laws enacted by Conftantine the Great, and his fucceffors, as did, or did not, originate in Christianity.

The alterations fucceffively made in the laws, from religious principles, were fometimes dictated by fuch different opinions concerning morality and church-difcipline, as happened then to prevail; fometimes by retrospects on the former fate of the Christians; and fometimes by political views, concealed by the emperors under the mask of religious purposes.

When the feat of the empire was transferred to Conftantinople, that new metropolis was, by degrees, infected with Perfian manners; and the emperors were, after the fashion of the Perfian court, adored, and ftyled divinities. Christianity was indeed at Conftantinople more able to counteract the defpotifm then prevailing, than it had formerly been at Rome, where the influence of the Chriftian religion was more confined; yet that religion could not prevent or mitigate the feverity of the penal laws increased by defpotifm.. It even happened to increase the rigour of fome punishments, as the clergy applied the laws of Mofes to Chriftianity. Some fpecies of punishment, fuch as crucifixion, and gladiatory combats, were abolifhed or commuted by Chriftianity. The laws against aftrologers, thieves who robbed graves, and thofe concerning the mitigation of imprisonment, arofe from hiftorical reafons derived from Chriftianity. Conftantine increased the authority of the clergy; and mitigated the power of fathers over their children, from political views. The emperors often founded their laws on that of Mofes, or on other parts of the Bible, and often expressed them in fcriptural words.

The third Differtation treats of the Power of the Clergy, and of its Influence on Legislation. It is remarkable, that the laws were not inferted by the emperors into their codes, till after they had been revised and amended by fynods. The Chriftian clergy had therefore a more powerful influence on civil government than the clergy of any other religion. They applied the ecclefiaftical conftitution of the Jews to themselves, and claimed fome peculiar prerogatives as granted them by God. Their authority was fupported by prevailing ignorance and fuperftition. Our author thinks with Montefquieu, the authority of the clergy hurtful to republics, but very useful to monarchies bordering on defpotifin. Thus the clergy, in the Roman empire, fupply the want of fundamental laws, as appears from the inftance of Ambrofius, and the infurrection at Theffalonica; yet the clergy have unjustly been charged with every evil and mischief, though it ought rather to have been revered for having interwoven the love due to our fellow-creatures with the fyftem of civil laws. Neither were the clergy fo ignorant in point

of

of politics, as it has often been imagined. They have, indeed, by degrees, fubftituted Christian fimplicity to political refinements, and thus made civil government more confonant to the fpirit of Christianity. Their jurifdiction often prevented bad defigns of fovereigns and their minifters. By their cenfura morum, they purged the Roman law of the remains of paganism, fuch as brothels, prohibited books, magical arts, games, &c. If from a prejudice of the unlawfulness of fhedding blood, they often fcreened criminals from capital punishment, their interceffion as often supported the poor and weak against the powerful and great.

The fourth Differtation treats of that natural Equality of Men and Citizens, introduced by Christianity into the Roman Law. No part of Christian ethics has had a greater influence on those laws, than that concerning our duties to our fellow-creatures, and especially the love we owe them. This appears from the laws of Christian fovereigns; hence the rife of the laws in favour of the poor, the fick, and orphans; laws procured by the clergy: to widows too, and minors, several immunities were granted. Servitude was mitigated; emancipation promoted by the clergy; the rights of the female fex, regarding hereditary fucceffions, marriage, &c. were increased: but whether illegitimate children were gainers or lofers by these revolutions, is still matter of doubt. The limitation of paternal power was rather effected by ethics than by Christianity.

The fifth Differtation treats of the Civil State of those who dif fented from the prevailing Religion both among the Romans and the Christians. The religion of the Romans was interwoven with their political conftitution, and rather regarded their temporal interefts; they thought that every nation ought to have her own nåtional gods, who were occafionally worshipped even by the Romans themselves on their journies. They confidered their own gods as benefactors, whom they obtruded on no other nation or individual. They tolerated all men, except atheifts, whom they deemed bad and dangerous citizens. The Christians having no fuch national gods, were mistaken for atheists by the Romans, and perfecuted accordingly. The Chriftians, in their turn, afterwards adopted the fame principles, and perfecuted heretics. The Romans, in tolerating other religions, confidered whether the votary of any foreign religon performed the duties of an honest man; which, they fuppofed would be done by every worshipper of any national gods. The Chriftians, on the contrary, thought none but Chriftians acquainted with the duties of an honest man. As Christianity spread farther, the hatred to all herefies increased, and was zealously inflamed by the clergy. When virtue afterwards became an object of civil laws, religious and civil duties were confounded. The chief objects of the Roman law, were Jews, Heathens, and Heretics. The Jews were treated with greater feverity under Chriftian fovereigns; and many laws, relating to marriage, adultery, incapacity for public employments, were enacted to their prejudice. The ecclefiaftical laws were yet more fevere. They were, however, fuffered to retain their own fabbath, their own judges, and patriarchs. Before the reign of Juftinian, it was already thought lawful entirely to extirpate heathenifm, though many fecret heathens remained even at court. Juftinian forbade them to teach philofophy. Heretics were first mentioned by the Chriftian Roman legiflation; but herefy was, under different emperors, very differently defined. The laws enacted by fuch emperors as were themselves

F 2

deemed

deemed heretics, were expunged in both codes. Herefy was pu nifhed as a crime of offended divine and human majefty; and every tranfgreffion of the will or laws of the fovereign were referred to this head. The principle of the Jewith polity were applied to the determination of the punishment of herefy; the heretics were accused of fedition and witchcraft, and burnt, together with their books. The hatred against them was encreased by the commotions and trouble which arofe from differences concerning religious tenets. The state was yet further embroiled, when the chiefs of the church began to employ the force of arms. Heretics were confidered as aliens and ftrangers, and of courfe excluded from all the rights of citizens.

The fixth Differtation treats of the Influence of Christianity on Marriage Laws. Here our author enters on the confideration of the laws relating to particular objects. The Romans bad confidered marriage as a mere civil inftitution; the Chriftian fovereigns on the Contrary, referred it to religion: the influence of the clergy on thefe laws proved afterwards hurtful. Betrothings became now perfectly obligatory, and marriage more facred and more indiffoluble. The prorogatives attributed by the clergy to celibacy, induced the Christian fovereigns to repeal the ancient penal laws against celibacy, at the perfuafion of the interefted clergy. Widowhood became more refpected, and fecond marriages became odious to the legiflature. With regard to the prohibited degrees, the Christian legiflators adopted both the Mofaic and the Roman laws. As both thefe laws happened to coincide on this head, the Chriftian legiflators had no occasion to change the Roman laws in this respect. Eivorces were only more limited by Conftantine ; and persons of unequal ranks were allowed to intermarry.

Though all thefe obfervations cannot be pronounced new and original, they are here judiciously collected, digested, and arranged. The tyle is frequently dry, and fometimes obfcure.

La Richefe de Hollande. 2 Vols. 4to. Londres.

THE HE firft volume of this useful work treats of the commerce and navigation of Holland, and their progrefs from the earliest times to the peace of Weftphalia, when they had arrived at an amazing height; of the prefent ftate of the Dutch commerce, and the caules of its former uncommon extent and profperity. The fecond volume contains a minute and accurate enquiry into the caufes of the decline of that commerce in latter times, and into the means by which it might be recovered.

The extent and importance of the commerce of Holland during its first period, feem rather to have been exaggerated by our author, who attempts to prove, that Holland was already a flourishing trading. nation before it became a fovereign republic. In the next fection be displays the rapid increase of its commerce and navigation, the rife of its powerful. East India Company, the acquifition of their diftant fettlements, and the fpreading of the Dutch flag over all

the feas.

The moft flourishing period of their East India Company was the time of the conclufion of the peace of Weftphalia. At that time. the stock of the proprietors yielded them annually 22 per cent. on an average. But thefe dividends almost continually decreased in

latter

latter times. From 1649 to 1684, they yielded only 17}}} from 1721 to 1756, they rose to 204; and from 1756 to 1774, they fell to 153 per cent.

The number of Dutch veffels employed in the herring-fishery, amounted in 1601 to 1500; in 1735 it had decreased to 250; in 1747 to 100; in 1773 to 163; and in 1775 this branch of fishery would have been entirely abandoned, if the ftates general had not decreed a bounty of 500 florins to every veffel employed in it.

The whale-fishery is here very minutely defcribed. In former times from 160 to zoo veffels were employed in it. It now employs about 150; 27 other veffels are fitted out for killing fea-dogs. The. profit of this fishery is often very precarious. The common expence of fitting out a vefiel for the whale-fishery, amounts to 10,000 florins, or, by other accounts, to 12,600 florins. If it returns with only two or three whales, the employer lofes 3500 forins.

Here we also meet with a minute account of the ancient fates of the fettlement at Surinam, and of the frequent infurrections of the Negroe flaves there; but lefs accurate and fatisfactory as to the prefent ftate, population, and trade of that country. Coffee was first planted there by one Hanbach, a German. Its other produce confifts in fugar, cacao, cotton, and tobacco of a quality in-, ferior to that of Virginia. In 1775, fifty four fail entered there from Holland, ten of them imported 2356 faves. During the fame year, fixty-three fail returned from Surinam to Holland, with a cargo of 18 millions pound weight of coffee, 15,200,000 pound weight of fugar, 600,000 pound of cacao, and 150,000 pound of

cotton.

The fettlement of Berbice appears to be in a very confused state: thofe of Demerary and Effequebo are flightly mentioned, and thofe at Curaffao and St. Eustaciá are entirely omitted. Berbice was in 1724 already declining, when a company in Holland refolved to. collect a stock of 1600 fhares, of 2000 florins each, in order to affitt that fettlement: but their defign proceeded fo flowly that in 1774, no more than 941 of thefe fhares were collected; whole price is accordingly now tunk to 200 florins.

The account of the trade of Holland with the other countries of Europe, is very fhort; that of the decay of many Duch manufactures appears to be more complete. The trade with Rhenith oak timber has ceafed, from the walte of the forefts on the Rhine. Hol land, however, ftill imports fome timber from the Neckar. The once extensive trade of the Dutch in books and paper, has likewise been greatly hurt by the great number of paper mills erected of late. years in France and Brabant Zaandam is faid to have loft about one hundred faw mills within thirty years as a great quantity of timber is now imported from Norway and Sweden, in planks and boards ready fawed.

The Dutch trade in tobacco has also greatly declined. Holland formerly manufactured from 5 to 7000 rolls (from 350 to 400 pounds weight each) of Brazil-tobacco only; that fort is now annoft, unknown in Holland. Its trade with France has a dangerous rival in the city of Hamburgh. Of all the coffee, fugar, and indigo exported. in 1770 from Bourdeaux, three-fourths were shipped for Hamburgh, and one-fourth only for Holland,

Vol. II. The decline of the Dutch trade is by our author chiefly afcribed, 1. To the competition and rivalfhip of other nations, efpesially the English. 2. To the great number and variety of taxes and

F 3

duties,

duties, impofed during the war with Spain, and ever fince increased; by which, commerce was hurt, and feveral of its branches actually loft. 3. To the change of the conftitution of the republic. 4. To the wars waged by Holland with other powers during the latter fifty years of the laft century; efpecially to thofe with Cromwell and Charles II. That with Cromwell in particular is faid to have coft the Dutch more than their eighty year's war with Spain. 5. To the neglect of their military establishment in their colonies. But for the active zeal of his highness duke Lewis of Brunswic, the flaves in Berbice would, in 1763, have, like the Brafilians formerly, entirely.. freed themfeives from the domination of the Dutch. 6. To the leffening the revenue by fmuggling, which has alfo contributed towards the decline of trade; for as thefe duties are appropriated to defray the expence of the fleet, their continual decreafe could not but difable the navy from effectually protecting commerce. 7. To the exceffive credit given by the Dutch to foreigners; to the bad management and frauds of the inferior fervants of the respective commercial companies; to the increase of expence and luxury; to the frauds of stock-jobbers; to the fupport given by Holland to foreign colonies; and to the eafe with which Dutch planters may procure the greatest loans in the mother country. Thofe in Surinam formerly ufed to rate their plantations at three or even four times their actual value; and, while an inventory was making, to borrow a number of flaves from neighbouring plantations and instead of sending their productions to the director of the colony or to Holland, to fell them privately to the English, to the great detriment of their Dutch creditors.

The means propofed for restoring the Dutch trade to its former flourishing ftate, are chiefly borrowed from Mr. de Witt's Memoirs, from the Political Tranfactions of the years 1751 and 1757, on this fubject, and from the Memoirs of Meff. Rogge und Van dem Heuvel, which have obtained the prize propofed by the Dutch Society of Sciences at Harlem.

FOREIGN LITERARY INTELLIGENCE. Des Canaux de Navigation, et spécialement du Canal de Languedoc. Par M. de la Lande. Prof. Roy. des Mathem. &c. Folio, with 14 Plates. Paris.

T HIS very inftructive and interefting work contains a minute and accurate defcription of the famous canal of Languedoc, the mafter-piece of French induftry; of the canal de Briare, the most ancient and most useful in France: of that of Burgundy, which is actually carrying on; an account of the projects of a canal by which the Rhone is to have a communication with the Rhine, and confequently the Mediterranean, with the North Sea. From these and many other actually exifting, begun, or projected canals in feveral provinces of France, the indefatigable author proceeds to thofe in Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Holland, England, Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Sweden, Ruffia, and Turky, and even to thofe in China; and at last completes and concludes his Hiftory of navigable canals with an account of these undertaken and executed by the ancients; fuch as that from the Tigris to the Euphrates, Auguftus' canal at Ravenna; thefe of Drufus and Corbulo; and especially that of the Egyptian kings, by which the Nile and the Mediterranean Sea were joined with the Red and the Indian Seas.

Oba

7