division in use, among these nations, as well as the Greeks, was that which reckoned the first quarter from sunset to midnight; the second from midnight to sunrise; the third, or morning watch, from morning to noon; and the fourth from noon to sunset.

The more minute subdivision of the day into hours is a comparatively modern invention; but at what time it first commenced is uncertain. It does not appear from the writings of Moses that he was acquainted with it, as he mentions only the morning, mid-day, evening and sunset. Hence we may conclude, that the Egyptians at that time knew nothing of it, as Moses was well skilled in their learning. According to Herodotus, the Greeks received the knowledge of the twelve hours of the day from the Babylonians. It is probable, however, that the division was actually known and in use before the name hour was applied to it; as Censorinus informs us that the term was not made use of in Rome for 300 years after its foundation; nor was it known at the time the XII. tables were constructed. In confirmation of the testimony of Herodotus, we have the first mention of hours in the Bible by the prophet Daniel, c. iii. 6, while a captive in Babylon. See also Dan. iv. 19, 33, &c.

The eastern nations divide the day and night in a very singular manner; the origin of which is not easily discovered. The Chinese have five watches in the night, which are announced by a certain number of strokes on a bell or drum. By the ancient Tartars, Indians, and Persians, the day was divided into eight parts, each of which contained seven hours and a half. On the coast of Malabar the day is divided into six parts, called najikas; each of these six parts is subdivided into sixty others, called venaigas; the venaiga into sixty birpes; the birpe into ten kenikans; the kenikan into four mattires; the mattire into eight kaunimas or caignodes; which divisions, according to our mode of computation, stand as follows:

Najika, 24 hours. Venaiga, 24 min. Birpe, 4 sec. Kenikan, sec. Mattire, sec. Caignode, sec. The Chinese day begins at midnight, and ends with the midnight following. It is divided into twelve hours, each distinguished by a particular name and figure. They also divide the natural day into 100 parts, and each of these into 100 minutes; so that the whole contains 10,000 minutes. In the northern parts of Europe, where only two seasons are reckoned in the year, the divisions of the day and night are considerably larger than with us. In Iceland the twenty-four hours are divided into eight parts; the first of which commences at three in the morning; the second at five; the third at half an hour after eight; the fourth at eleven; the fifth at three in the afternoon; the sixth at six in the evening; the seventh at eight; and last at midnight. In the eastern part of Turkestan the day is divided into twelve equal parts, each of which is distinguished by the name of some animal. These are subdivided into eight keh; so that the whole twenty-four hours contain ninety-six keh.

The modern divisions of the hour in use among us are into minutes, seconds, thirds, fourths, &c. each being a sixtieth part of the former subdivi

sion. By the Chaldæans, Jews, and Arabians, the hour is divided into 1080 scruples: so that one hour contains sixty minutes, and one minute, twenty-eight scruples. The ancient Persians and Arabs were likewise acquainted with this division; but the Jews are so fond of it, that they pretend to have received it in a supernatural manner. Issachar,' say they, ascended into heaven, and brought from thence 1080 parts for the benefit of the nation.'

The division of the day being ascertained, it soon became an object to indicate in a public manner the expiration of any particular hour or division; as without some general knowledge of this kind, it would be in a great measure impossible to carry on business. The methods of announcing this have been likewise very different.

Among the Egyptians it was customary for the priests to proclaim the hours like watchmen among us. The same method was followed at Rome; nor was there any other method of knowing the hours until A. A. C. 293, when Papirius Cursor first set up a sun-dial in the capitol. A similar method is practised among the Turks, whose priests proclaim from the top of their mosques, the cock-crowing, day-break, mid-day, three o'clock in the afternoon, and twilight, being their appointed times of worship. As this mode of proclaiming the hour could not but be very inconvenient, as well as imperfect, the introduction of an instrument which every one could have in his possession, and which might answer the same purpose, must have been considered as a valuable acquisition. One of the first of these was the clepsydra or water clock. See CLEPSYDRA. Various kinds of clepsydrae were in use among the Egyptians at a very early period. The invention of the instrument is attributed to Thoth or Mercury, and it was afterwards improved by Ctesibius of Alexandria. It was a common measure of time among the Greeks, Indians and Chaldæans, as well as the Egyptians, but was not introduced into Rome till the time of Scipio Nasica. The Chinese astronomers have long made use of it; and by its means have divided the zodiac into twelve parts; but it is a very in accurate measure of time, varying, not only according to the quantity of water in the vessel, but according to the state of the atmosphere. The clepsydra was succeeded by the gnomon or sun-dial. This, at first, was no more than a stile erected perpendicularly to the horizon; and it was a long time before the principles of it came to be thoroughly understood. The invention is with great probability attributed to the Babylonians, from whom the Jews received it before the time of Ahaz, when we know that a sun-dial was already erected at Jerusalem.

The Chinese and Egyptians were also acquainted with the use of the dial at a very early period, and it was considerably improved by Anaximander or Anaximenes; one of whom is for that reason looked upon to be the inventor. Various kinds of dials, however, were invented and used in diff, ent nations long before their introction at Rome. Papirius Cursor erected the first; and, thirty years after, Valerius Messala brought one from Sicily, which was used in

Rome for no less than ninetv-nine years, though constructed for a Sicilian atitude, and consequently incapable of showing the hours exactly in any other place; but at last another was constructed by L. Philippus, capable of measuring time with greater accuracy.

:

It was long after the invention of dials before mankind began to form any idea of clocks; nor is it well known at what period they were first invented. A clock was sent by Pope Paul I. to Pepin king of France, which at that time was supposed to be the only one in the world. A very curious one was also sent to Charles the Great from the caliph Haroun Alraschid, which the historians of the time speak of with surprise and admiration but the greatest improvement was that of Mr. Huygens, who added the pendulum to it. Still, however, the instruments for dividing time were found to be inaccurate for nice purposes. The expansion of the materials by heat, and their contraction by cold, would cause a very perceptible alteration in the going of an instrument in the same place at different times of the year, and much more if carried from one climate to another. Various methods have been contrived to correct this; which indeed can be

But almost all other nations adopted the week of seven days; and it is remarkable that one day in the week has always been accounted sacred by most nations. Thus Saturday was consecrated to pious purposes among the Jews, Friday by the Turks, Tuesday by the Africans of Guinea, and Sunday by the Christians. Hence also the origin of Feriæ or holidays, frequently made use of in Systems of Chronology.

Chronologers have remarked that the week seems a natural measure of time furnished by the four principal phases or quarters of the moon. Dr. Hales, however, insists that it was derived from a divine institution, at the creation, and handed down by primitive tradition. It seen.s also that Noah adopted it, Gen. viii. 10-12, and that it was known to the patriarchs, Gen. xxix. 7. But our author rests the proof of it principally on the singular fact that the word sabbat or sabbata denoted a week among the Syrians, Arabians, thiopians, and Persians, from a very remote period; and quotes the following ancient Syriac calendar of the week (expressed in the Chaldee alphabet) from Michaelis's Introduction to the New Testament, by Dr. Marsh.

תלת-שנתא

SECT. II.-OF WEEKS.

We now proceed to the larger divisions of time, which more properly belong to chronology, and which must be kept on record, as no instrument can be made to point them out. Of these the division into weeks of seven days is one of the most ancient, and probably took place from the creation of the world. Some, indeed, are of opinion that the week was invented some time after for the more convenient notation of time; but whatever may be in this, we are certain that it is of the highest antiquity; being adopted in the Mosaic narrative of the creation, and that even the most rude and barbarous nations have used it. The ancient Greeks, however, were ignorant of this division; and M. Goguet informs us that they were almost the only nation who were so. By them the month of thirty days was divided into three times ten, and the days of it named accordingly thus the fifteenth day of the month was called the second fifth, or fifth of the second tenth; the twenty-fourth was called the third fourth, or the fourth day of the third tenth. This method was in use in the days of Hesiod, and it was not until several ages had elapsed that the use of weeks was received into Greece from the Egyptians.

The week was likewise unknown to the ancient Persians and to the Mexicans; the former having a different name for every day of the month, and the latter making use of a cycle of thirteen days.

One of the Sabbath Two of the Sabbath

Sunday.

Monday,

6

All the evangelists seem, as Dr. Hales observes, to have used this calender, both in the word σαββατα, a week,' and in retaining the cardinal number μια σαβατων, one of the week,' or the first day of the week, to express the day of the resurrection, Matt. xxviii. 1; Mark xvi. 2; Luke xxiv. 1; and John xx. 1. See also Mark xvi. 9, and Luke xviii. 12, Nŋoevw dig te oaßßaroc. I fast twice in the week.' Three of the evangelists also use oaßßara, to denote the Sabbath.

The Jews had also weeks of years: a Sabbatical year, which released all debtors, something in the manner of our statute of limitations; and a week of seven times seven, or forty-nine years, which brought about their jubilee, or general year of return to the original inheritance of their ancestors, Lev. xxv. 8. Seventy of these weeks of years we know were assigned by the angel of God to Daniel as determined to transpire from the event of the decree of Artaxerxes, Ezra vii. 2, to the appearance of the Messiah. Christians are well aware of the importance of this prophecy (see onward); but we lately heard a respectable scholar of the Jewish persuasion contend that these were not weeks of years, but weeks of jubilees, or of fifty years; equivalent therefore to 3500 years, which reckoned, as he stated, from the birth of Edom, the great eneiny of the Jews, would bring about a period ending, according to their chronology, about twentythree years from the present time (1826) a date at which many of them confidently look forward to the appearance of the Messiah.

SECT. III.-OF MONTHS.

The next division of time is that of months. This appears to have been, if not coeval with the creation, at least in use before the flood. As this division is naturally pointed out by the revolution of the moon, the months of all nations were originally lunar; a fact confirmed by thesterms iarah, signifying both the month and the full moon in Hebrew; uny, the month, and unvn, the moon, Greek; whence, according to the best lexicographers, mensis, Lat. monat, Ang.-Sax., and our English, month.

The division of the year into twelve months, as being founded on the number of full revolutions of the moon in that time, has also been very general. Sir John Chardin, however, informs us that the Persians divided the year into twentyfour months; and the Mexicans into eighteen months of twenty days each. The months generally contained thirty days, or twenty-nine and thirty days alternately; though this rule was far from being without exception. The months of the Latins consisted of sixteen, eighteen, twenty-two, or thirty-six days; and Romulus gave his people a year of ten months, or 304 days.

Biblical months are clearly of three kinds; 1. In the time of the flood they seem to have consisted of thirty days each, for Moses reckons 150 days from the seventh day of the second month, to the seventh day of the seventh month, which forms an interval of exactly five months, of thirty days each The Egyptians and Greeks, it is well known, also used this month. 2. The moon takes 29 days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes in passing from a point in which she is in a straight line with the sun, and returning to it again, or to her square or conjunction, as it is called. This odd time produced the alternate reckoning of twenty-nine or thirty days to the month above alluded to, or the mensis cava and the mensis plini. And thus Hesiod and Thales call the last day of the month Tonkada, the thirtieth; and the year is represented by an ancient riddle of the Greeks: The father is one, the sons twelve; to each belong thirty daughters; half of them white, the other black; and, though immortal, they all perish.' 3. The first appearance of that luminary in the same quarter from month to month, was another mode of accounting for the duration of this period of time: and critics are divided as to which of the last two methods of reckoning regulated the Jewish festivals. The one last-mentioned must clearly depend upon the state of the atmosphere, in part, and be therefore very uncertain.

Ancient nations adopted various names for the months, and arranged them very differently. From this last circumstance arises the variety in the dates of the months; for as the year has been reckoned from different signs in the ecliptic, neither the number nor the quantity of months have been the same, and their situation has likewise been altered by necessary intercalations, which formed embolismal months, natural or civil, By the former the solar and lunar years are

adjusted to one another; and the latter arise from the defect of the civil year itself. The adar of the Jews, which always consists of thirty days, is an example of the natural embolismal month.

The Romans divided their months into kalends, nones, and ides; which they had a singular method of reckoning backwards. See KALENDS. The 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th of March, May, July, and October, were the nones of these months; but in the other months were the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th days only. Thus the 5th of January was its nones; the 4th was pridie nonarum; the 3d tertio nonarum ; and the 2d quarto. The ides contained eight days in every month, and were nine days distant from the nones. Thus the 15th day of these four months was the ides, but in the others the 13th; the 12th was pridie iduum, and the 11th tertio iduum. The ides were succeeded by the kalends; our 14th of January, for instance, being the 19th of, or before the kalends of February; the 15th was the 18th of the kalends, and so on till the 31st of January, which was pridie kalendarum; and February 1st was the kalends.

In Europe the month is either astronomical or civil, i. e. measured by the motion of the heavenly bodies; or specified by civil institutions. The astronomical months, being for the most part regulated by the motions of the sun and moon, are thus divided into solar and lunar, of which the former is sometimes also called civil. The astronomical solar months is the time which the sun takes up in passing through a sign of the ecliptic.

The lunar month is periodical, synodical, sidereal, and civil. The synodical lunar month is the time that passes between any conjunction of the moon with the sun and the conjunction following. It includes the motion of the sun eastward during that time; so that a mean lunation consists of 29 d. 12 h. 44 m. 2s., 8921. The sidereal lunar month is the time of the mean revolution of the moon with regard to the fixed stars. As the equinoctial points go backwards about 4 s. in the space of a lunar month, the moon must, in consequence of this retrocession, arrive at the equinox sooner than at any fixed star, and consequently the mean sidereal revolution must be longer than the mean periodical one. The latter cousists of 27 d. 7 h. 43 m. 4 s., 6840. The civil lunar month is computed from the moon, to answer the ordinary purposes of life; and as it would have been inconvenient, in the computation of lunar months, to have reckoned odd parts of days, they have been composed of thirty days, or of twenty-nine and thirty alternately, as the nearest round numbers.

Twelve lunar months, being eleven days less than a solar year, Julius Cæsar ordained that the month should be reckoned from the course of the sun, and not of the moon; and that they should consist of thirty and thirty-one days alternately, February only excepted, which was to consist of twenty-eight days commonly, and of twenty-nine in leap years. We are indebted to Dr. Hales for the following Table of the Months of all the celebrated Ancient Nations.

SECT. IV. OF YEARS.

The highest natural division of time is into years. At first, however, it is probable that the course of the sun through the ecliptic would not be observed, but that all nations would measure their time by the revolutions of the moon. We are certain, at least, that the Egyptian year consisted originally of a single lunation; though at length it included two or three months, and was determined by the stated returns of the seasons. As the eastern nations however, particularly the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, applied themselves very early to astronomy, they found, by comparing the motions of the sun and moon together, that one revolution of the former included above twelve of the latter. Hence a year of twelve lunations was formed, in every one of which were reckoned thirty days; and hence also the division of the ecliptic into 360 degrees.

The luni-solar year, consisting of 360 days, was in use long before any regular intercalations were made; and historians inform us that the year of all ancient nations was luni-solar. Herodotus relates that the Egyptians first divided the year into twelve parts by the assistance of the stars, and that every part consisted of thirty days. The Thebans corrected this year by adding five intercalary days to it. The old Chaldean year was reformed by the Medes and Persians; and some of the Chinese missionaries have informed us that the luni-solar year was also corrected in China; that the solar year was ascertained in that country to very considerable exactness. The Latin year, before Numa's correction of it, consisted of 360 days, of which 304 were divided into ten months; to which were added two private months not mentioned in the kalendar. Dr. Hales observes, more in detail, 'The primitive sacred year originally consisted of twelve months of thirty days each, or 360 days. This was in use before the deluge, as appears from Noah's reckoning five months, or 150 days, from the seventeenth of the second month, to the seventeenth day of the seventh month; as expressing the time of the rising of the waters; and seven months and ten days more, till the waters were dried up, and Noah and his family left the ark, after a residence therein of 370 days, or a year and ten days, till the seven-and-twentieth day of the second month of the ensuing year. Gen. vii. and viii.

This was also the original Chaldean year; for Berosus, in his History of the Antediluvian Kings of Babylonia, counted their reigns by sari, or decads of years; and a sarus, as Alexander Polyhistor related (apud Syncell, p. 32), was 3600 days, or ten years, consisting each of 360 days.

'After the deluge this primitive form was handed down by Noah and his descendants to the Chaldeans, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Indians, and Chinese; as is evident from the testimonies of the best and most ancient writers and historians.

'Diodorus Siculus relates, that, at the sepulchre of Osiris, the Egyptian priests appointed to bewail his death, filled 360 milk-bowls every day, to denote the number of days in the primitive Egyptian year, used in his reign. And he

represents an ancient custom at Acanthe, near Memphis, on the Libyan side of the Nile, for 360 priests to fetch water every day from the Nile, and pour it into a vessel full of holes, to represent the 360 days in continual flux or succession. Diod. Lib. 1. p. 26, 109.

'The Egyptians attributed the invention of their year to the Phoenician Taaut, Thoth, or Hermes, the son of Misraim, who went with the first colony into Egypt, in the reign of Uranus, who lived in Phoenicia soon after the dispersion, and was a great astronomer, or a diligent observer of the risings and settings of the stars; who discovered the year from the motion of the sun, and the months from the course of the moon, and was deified after his death. Diod. Lib. 3.

'Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, and Q. Curtius, relate that the Persian kings had 360 concubines, one for each day of the year; who went each in their turns to the king in the evening, and returned in the morning into the house of the women; as we learn from Herod. Lib. 3, 69; and from Scripture. Esth. ii. 12, 15.

"Harpocration, Suidas, and Julius Pollux relate, that, in the original constitution of Athens, the people were divided into four tribes, representing the four seasons of the year; and these tribes into twelve wards, corresponding to the twelve months; and each ward consisted of thirty families, answering to the thirty days of each month; in all 360, as many as the days of the year. Suidas, voce Γεννηταάι et Γεννῆται. This year, therefore, was introduced into Greece many ages before the arrival of Cecrops in Attica, from Sais in Egypt; probably by the first settlers, the Javanians, or descendants of Japheth; or by the old Pelasgi from Phoenicia.

The first Latin and Roman year consisted of 360 days, as we learn from Plutarch, who says in his life of Numa, that, 'in the reign of Romulus, the months were very irregular, some not being reckoned twenty days, others had thirtyfive days, and others more: the Latins not then understanding the difference between the solar and lunar year; but only providing for this one point, that the year should contain 360 days.'

"The Chinese year originally consisted of 360 days; as did also the Mexican, which they divided into eighteen months of twenty days each. Scaliger de Emend. Temp. p. 225.

'From this detail it is evident that the primitive year everywhere throughout the ancient world, consisted only of 360 days, for many ages after the deluge.'

The imperfection of this method of computing time is now very evident. The luni-solar year was about five days and a quarter shorter than the true solar year, and as much longer than the lunar. Hence the months could not long correspond with the seasons; and even in so short a time as thirty-four years, the winter months would have changed places with those of summer. From this rapid variation, Playfair takes notice that a passage in Herodotus, by which the learned have been exceedingly puzzled, may receive a satisfactory _solution, viz. that in the time of the ancient Egyptian kings, the sun had twice arisen in the place where it had formerly