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sentiments of many of the Fathers, that Christ was treated in a different manner? It is written, that he was stripped of his garments, whilst we read nothing of his having been covered with a veil or with breeches. It is urged by some, that the sufferings of Christ were voluntary, that he determined to suffer nothing unbecoming, and that he must therefore have avoided whatever was opposite to decency, such as the circumstance of being seen quite naked by his mother and the rest of the women. But Vossius judiciously replies,* that it belonged to the severity of his sufferings that his death should be ignominious to the last degree, and that if he had nothing to cover him, the ignominy was so much the greater. And with regard to his being seen by the holy women, we may attend to the language of Livia Augusta, a heathen female, when she was met in a narrow path by several criminals that were dragged stark naked to punishment. The sight of them she remarked, moved her no more than the sight of naked statues. And surely the love which those good women bore for Christ, was too ardent and pure, or rather too heavenly and divine, to permit any indignity done by his enemies to his sacred body to induce them to turn away from so dear an object.

xxv. We come now to the CRUCIFIXION itself; which was not always performed in the same manner, whether we attend to the time, or the instruments, or the position of the crucified. With respect to the time, it was most usual, as Lipsius proves at large, that the cross was fixed in the ground, before the criminal was fastened to it. Hence the following forms of expression; " to ascend

* Harm. Evan. lib. ii. cap. 7. sect. 3.
+ De Cruce, lib. ii. cap. 7.

"the cross, ""to mount the cross," "one that climbs "the cross," "to be lifted up on the cross;"* that is, upon the middle pole, which the unfortunate, assisted by the executioner, mounted, that he might sit on it like a rider on his horse. But almost all who treat this subject have gathered from the Acts of Pionius, whom we have quoted above, that in some instances they were put upon the cross in a laying posture and stretched flat upon the back, the cross being afterwards erected. For in those Acts it is said; "When therefore he was fas"tened to the beam, they lifted him up."

XXVI. The instruments used in fastening men to the cross, were nails or cords, but for the most part the former; which the term crucifixion itself imports. We read of cords in Ammianus ;† "Dracontius and Dio"dotus, having their legs bound with cords, were put to death." The nails were first thrust into their hands, beginning with the right hand; not always perhaps in the midst of the palm, but a little higher, about the wrist; for Plautus says, that "the arms were "nailed to the cross." The executioner then proceeded to the feet; which were sometimes both transfixed with one nail, and sometimes each with a distinct nail.

XXVII. The position or posture of persons condemned to the cross, was also diversified; for cruelty is ingenious in devising methods of torture. The most common position was, that the sufferer had his hands stretched out on the upper transverse beam, and sat on the middle pole, his feet hanging down towards the ground. More rarely the posture was inverted. Seneca says; "Others

levari.

Ascendere in crucem, insilire in crucem, crucisalus, in crucem

+ Lib. xxii.

VOL. II.

M'

23.

"were suspended, with the head turned towards the "earth."* See pictures representing these positions in Lipsius.† Peter, it is said, was crucified in this posture at his own request, that he might not suffer in the same manner with our Lord.

XXVIII. In the crucifixion of Christ every thing was done, there is no cause to doubt, according to the custom more commonly observed. We apprehend, therefore, that he was not lifted up with the cross, having been previously fastened, but lifted up on the cross, to be fastened to it;-that he was not bound to the cross with cords, but fastened with nails,-whether three or four, does not appear;-finally, that he was suspended in such a posture that his face was erect, and exposed to the eyes of all.

XXIX. The things chiefly worthy of notice after the fastening of the body to the cross, are the revilings of those that insulted the unfortunates, the guarding of them, and death. They were guarded both when living and when dead, that none might carry off their bodies for interment. Their death, always grievous and full of pain, was owing to various causes. Sometimes it was occasioned by the loss of blood which gradually flowed from the wounds that were made by the scourge and the nails; sometimes by hunger and thirst. When their wretched life was prolonged to the third or fourth day or more, they were in some instances devoured by ravenous birds, or wild beasts; and at other times, killed with spears, or burned with fire. The Evangelists tell us of the breaking of the legs of the robbers that were crucified with Christ. But whether this was done from regard to the Roman custom, or for the sake of the

Consolat, ad Marc. cap. xx.

+ Lib. iii. cap. 8.

Jews-that there might be no violation of their law, which required that those who were suspended on a tree should be taken down at the setting of the sun,-to me appears in some degree uncertain.

xxx. Let us return to the cross of Christ; who suffered the most bitter revilings and taunts from Jews and Gentiles, from the rulers and the populace. Nor did they confine themselves to words. When he complained of thirst, they gave him vinegar to suck from a sponge. I cannot acquiesce in the opinion of Vossius, that "this "was not done as an insult, but from some kind of hu"manity;" for Luke, in terms sufficiently clear, refers it to mockery: "And the soldiers also mocked him, "coming to him, and offering him vinegar." Nor was the customary guard of soldiers wanting. "Sitting "down," says Matthew," they watched him there."h In fine, when all things were accomplished, which it was requisite for him to do and to suffer in this life, he expired, sooner than was usual, on the cross.

XXXI. No one surely can now doubt that the punishment of the cross is, with good reason, considered and denominated by lawyers and historians the highest or the chief punishment, and the last and severest penalty. Here incredible ignominy, and incredible pain, seem to vie with each other. Ignominy-for this punishment was anciently assigned to none but the meanest, and the most abandoned of mortals. Slaves, robbers, assassins, and other such monsters in human shape, were the candidates for the detested cross. Freemen, and Roman citizens, could not be subjected to this punishment, unless they were first punished with the loss of liberty, and degraded by servile stripes. Pain-which could

Ch. xxiii. 36.

h Ch. xxvii. 36.

not fail to be very grievous in a body lately torn with thongs, and now transfixed with nails in those parts where the feeling is peculiarly acute; the wounds being opened and distended by the weight of the body, and the expansion of the members. Pain, too, which the longer it continued, became the more excruciating.

All this ignominy and pain took place according to the Roman custom, and the nature of the punishment.13 But a third thing was added according to the Hebrew law, namely, a curse; of which we must now give an accurate account.

XXXII. In the book of Deuteronomy, God appoints that if a criminal be adjudged to death, and after death hanged on a tree, he should be taken away and buried before the setting of the sun; and the following reason is assigned, "for he that is hanged is accursed, a curse, of God." Paul, somewhat varying the words, quotes the same sentence, and transfers it to Christ. Here two questions are commonly proposed. It is inquired, in the first place, why God was pleased to brand this sort of punishment above all others with special infamy, that it might not only appear to men, what it really is, dreadful and horrible, but that also the person suspended might be considered an execration of God himself. It is not my intention to disparage, in any respect, the prolix discussions of men of learning on this point; but I shall state what seems to me the simplest and most obvious interpretation. The ruinous sin committed by our first parents had a relation to a tree. Hence the Hence the wrath and curse of

first beginning of evil.

God resting on the whole human race, nay, on the earth

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