Introduction.

SECT. I.-In the seventh century of the Christian era a revolution took place in the religion of the Arabian people, which not only changed the manners and institutions of the Arabians themselves, but materially influenced the destinies of the largest portion of the civilised globe. The wandering and insignificant tribes of Arabia were by this religion united into a powerful nation, filled with a spirit of desperate enthusiasm, and sent forth to be the conquerors of the greatest part of Asia, of all the civilised people of Africa, and some of the most powerful kingdoms in Europe. In a few years these enthusiastic warriors spread their new faith from the Ganges

to the Danube.

MAHOMET* was the author of these mighty changes. Arising amidst a rude and ignorant people, he assumed the attributes of the Messenger of God; he declared himself to be divinely inspired; to be expressly sent among mankind to overturn the idolatrous worship of his countrymen, and to establish in its place a new and more pure religion, dictated by the Almighty himself, and destined eventually to be the faith of all the nations of the earth. His countrymen believed in these magnificent pretensions; elected him to be their ruler, and quietly submitted their necks to the yoke of the absolute despotism which he instituted. The history of this extraordinary man with an account of the institutions which he framed, we are about to lay before

our readers.

Previous, however, to any history of the Arabian prophet, a short description must be given of the Arabian people at the time of his appearance. To know precisely what alterations he effected, and the good or evil of those alterations, we should learn the state of civilisation, the religion, government, and manners, which he attempted to improve.

Mohammed is the correct orthography; we have, nevertheless, for obvious reasons, retained the more popular form.

Before we can decide whether the changes he introduced were changes for the better, we must erect some certain standard of excellence with which we may compare both the institutions which he originated, and those which he found already established. Upon the results of this comparison alone, can we estimate the character of the Arabian legislator. Our limits, indeed, will not permit us to perform this comparison as minutely as we could wish: we must indicate rather than describe the standard to which we refer; must present merely a sketch of the important particulars of his institutions, and upon this imperfect evidence pronounce the most impartial judgment we are able.

DESCRIPTION OF ARABIA.

Arabia, the country of Mahomet, has at all times been an object of curiosity to the intelligent observer, both on account of the peculiarities of its soil and climate, and the remarkable character. of its inhabitants. Arabia Proper is bounded on the north-east by the Persian Gulf; on the south-east by the Indian Ocean. The Red Sea extends along the whole of its south-western coast; and an imaginary line drawn from the head of the Persian Gulf, to that of the Red Sea, completes the limits of the peninsula. The country contained within these limits exceeds above four times the magnitude of Germany or France *. More extended limits, however, are often assigned to the country designated by the term Arabia. Beyond the imaginary line running from Ailah, at the head of the Red Sea, to the head of the Persian Gulf, the territory of Arabia is sometimes made to extend on the west to Palestine, the isthmus of Suez and Syria; on the east to the Euphrates, and on the north to Syria, Deyar Beer, Irak, and Kuhestan. By

Gibbon's Decline and Fall, c, 50, p. 76.

Anc. Univ. Hist., b. 4, c. 21, p. 336. To those desirous of a particular description of the geography of Arabia we cannot do better than recommend M. D'Anville's Map; and the chapter of the Universal

B

the Greeks and Romans Arabia was usually divided, on account of the differences of the soil, into the Sandy, the Stony, and the Happy. By the Arabians themselves this division has not been adopted. The territory of Arabia Proper, bounded as we have described, was separated by them into five distinct provinces, viz. Hejaz, Yaman, Tehama, Naja, and Yamina. In the Happy Arabia, which occupied the greater part of the coast running along the Red Sea, and in the province of Hejaz, are situated the two famous cities of Mecca and Medina, The former was the birthplace of Mahomet; the latter, when he fled from Mecca, was the city of his refuge, the scene of his first victories-the first country over which he ruled with the authority of a king, and his last restingplace on earth. He died and was buried at Medina.

Arabia is situated under the burning sun of the tropics, and covered for the most part with arid sands, and barren, naked mountains. One part is somewhat exempt from this sort of soil. The hills at a small distance from the coast of the Red Sea are less barren, less scorched than the other parts of the country. The springs of water are there more numerous; the water less disgusting, the air more temperate when compared with the parched and sandy deserts by which it is surrounded, it may appear an earthly paradise. This Happy Arabia, however, has no navigable rivers, few springs the waters of which are drinkable, and no productions save coffee and frankincense to exchange for the commodities of other ccuntries. Having moreover few manufactures, it is poor both in the luxuries and comforts of life.

INHABITANTS.

The inhabitants of Arabia are usually divided into two classes, viz. the Arabs

of the deserts, or dwellers in tents, and

the Arabs of the cities.

DESERT TRIBES.

The Arabs of the deserts are roving bands that wander with their herds over the immense sandy regions of which

History here quoted. Neither our limits nor our de sign permit us to be more minute.

+ Sale's Pre. Disc., p. 3. Gibbon's Decline and Fall, c. 50. Niebuhr, c. 62. p. 86 Pinkerton's Collection. The limits of the Happy Arabia are variously assigned; the difference is a matter of little conse quence,

their country is composed: living partly by the flesh and milk of their camels, partly by the plunder of the caravans which traverse their desolate plains. One illustration amongst a thousand that might be offered, is sufficient to mark their savage condition, and wild, predatory manners. As a mortification by which they hope to please the Divinity, at certain seasons of the year religious truces were observed. They thus, by way of penance, obliged them selves to observe the regulations of civi lised society. "It was a custom among the ancient Arabs to observe four months in the year as sacred, during which they held it unlawful to wage war, and took off the heads of their spears; ceasing from incursions and other hostilities. During these months, whoever was in fear of his enemy lived in full security; so that, if a man met the murderer of his father, or his brother, he durst not offer him any violence. . Some of them, weary of sitting quiet for three months together, and eager to make their accustomed incursions for plunder, used by way of expedient whenever it suited their inclinations or convenience, to put off the observance of Al Moharram to the following month Safar* "

Among a people thus unsettled, all government was, as might have been expected, exceedingly fluctuating and uncertain. They were not reclaimed from that barbarous state, in which the strong plunder the weak with impunity. Every man pursued his enemy, without recurring for assistance to the magistrate; and inflicted that punishment which his power and vengeance combined enabled and incited him to inflict. The authority of the magistrate was a shadow: the chief of a tribe might indeed sometimes obtain considerable personal influence; it was the man, that was respected. Like all rude peohowever, not the office of magistrate, ple, the Arabs were divided into several petty tribes, which were in fact so many separate nations; and the only species of government acknowledged by those inhabiting the deserts, was a nominal obedience paid by the members of the tribe to their elected chief. As among other nations in the same state of civilisation, their leaders governed rather by

Sale's Pre. Dis. pp. 196, 198. Prideaux, Vie de Mahomet, p. 95. Moharram-that which is sacred and forbidden by the law. The first month of the year was called Moharram, because war was forbidden during its continuance. D'Herbelot, Bib. Orient, Safar was the second month.

example than commands. The chiefs were always the companions and guides of their tribes in arms; and sometimes the umpires of private disputes. The much vaunted independence of the Arab people, however, when closely investigated, appears little worthy of admiration. It consisted in the independence of the heads of families. The head of a family was subjected, or rather yielded obedience, to no one. But he exercised the most despotic sway over his own family. Wives, children, slaves were all completely under his uncontrolled dominion; and this patriarchal government as it is called, while receiving praises as a system of nearly perfect freedom, held ninetenths of the people in the most abject slavery.

Law, in such circumstances, could not be said to exist: written or unwritten, it was unknown to these wandering nations; unless we term law that sort of wavering opinion concerning honour in engagements, which necessity creates in every society however barbarous. This rude code of honour, as in all savage tribes, was handed down from generation to generation in a species of uncouth poetry, which, while it assisted the memory, delighted also the imagination of these barbarians. "God," said they, "has bestowed four peculiar things on the Arabs; that their turbans should be to them instead of diadems; their tents instead of walls and houses; their swords instead of intrenchments; and their poems instead of written laws." They could hardly have said any thing more descriptive of an uncivilised people.

ARABS OF THE CITIES.

The inhabitants of the cities were a still more remarkable race, for although they had abandoned the wandering life of their brethren, and taken up their abodes in cities, they were yet often induced to leave their homes, and indulge in the more active and uncontrolled life of the desert. Though living for the most part by merchandise and manufactures, they also participated in the business of robbery in the desert. The

Tacitus, Germ. c. 7.

+ Niebuhr's Travels, c. 62, p. 84, Pinkerton's Collection.

Sale's Pre. Disc., sec. 1, p. 38. Goguet, Origine des Lois, 1 Epo. p. 28. Mill's British India, b. 2, c. 9, p. 362, quarto ed. For a description of the wan dering Arabs, see Niebuhr's Travels, c. 98, Pink. Collection, p. 131. There is every reason to suppose that their manners have remained unchanged from the time of Mahomet to the present day.

life of the merchant was not found incompatible with that of the soldier, or rather robber; and he who to-day was in his counting-house, or work-shop, might, to-morrow, be at the head of his country's troops, or serving in the ranks as a soldier. The children of the cities were often confided to the tribes of the desert; and thus became early inured to the toilsome and dangerous life of the wandering Arab.

The inhabitants of Mecca, Medina, and the other cities thinly scattered along the shores of the Red Sea, appear to have been chiefly employed as wandering merchants. The tribes of the deserts brought whatever productions their country afforded, for the most part ostrich feathers, coffee, and frankincense, to the cities on the coast; and received in exchange the commodities which the city merchants had obtained at the fairs of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. The traffic with these countries was carried on by means of caravans of camels; the merchants, like the travelling merchants or pedlars of the present day, accompanying their goods, and superintending the sale and purchase $. By them was carried on the chief part of the trade existing between the Roman provinces, and the countries of the east; and the port of Jidda on the Red Sea was long celebrated as the emporium of Indian commerce §. This constant communication with more polished nations must, in some measure, have improved this portion of the Arabian people. They were, nevertheless, little better than

barbarians. Neither on account of their

"Mirum dictu, ex innumeris populis pars æque in commerciis aut in latrociniis degit," was the expression of Pliny. (Hist. Nat. vi. 32) This division of their time between robbery and commerce was and Fall, c. 50. Mod. Univ. Hist., vol. i., b. 1, c. 1, the same in the days of Mahoinet. Gibbon's Dec. 27.

p.

Mod. Univ. Hist., b. 1, c. 1, p. 23. Gagnier, Vie de Mah., p 86. "This was the season of the year in which the nurses of a country called Badian, that is, pays champêtre, came in great numbers to Mecca for the purpose of obtaining children to nurse.

Helima took him (Mahomet) into her own country, in which the air was temperate, as well on account of the fertility of the soil, as the sweetness of its waters." The pays champêtre of Gagnier appears to mean the wild country inhabited by the

desert tribes.

These caravans, like those of present times, were assemblages of merchants, who travelled in large numbers, to protect themselves against the attacks of the predatory desert tribes. Hostile tribes constantly endeavoured to capture the caravans of their enemies, much after the manner of European nations, plundering the vessels of industrious individuals, in the hopes of weakening the hostile nation. See Sale's Pre. Disc., sec. 1. p. 32. Prideaux, Vie de Maho met, p. 10.

Prideaux, Vie de Mahomet, p. 11.

government, their laws, their religion, their literature, nor their manners, did they deserve any other title*.

Like the Arabs of the deserts, the inhabitants of the cities were divided into separate tribes; and not only were the different cities unconnected by the bond of a general government, but the citizens of one town were divided into tribes; each one acknowledging a separate chief, and regarding every other tribe with bitter and interminable hatred. The chiefs derived their power as well from their birth as their personal worth, the people electing them out of certain families, yet having perfect liberty to choose that member of the family who was most agreeable to them. "The Bedouins, or pastoral Arabs, who live in tents, have many schiechs (i. e. chiefs), each of whom governs his family with power almost absolute. All the schiechs who belong to the same tribe acknowledge a common chief, who is called Schiech es Schuech, Schiech of Schiechs, or Schiech el Kbir, and whose authority is limited by custom. The grand schiech is hereditary in a certain family; but the inferior schiechs upon the death of a grand schiech choose the successor out of his family, without regard to age or lineal succession, or any other consideration, except superiority of abilities." The chiefs of the cities were elected much after the same manner.

GOVERNMENT.

The various provinces were split into small, independent states, possessing governments apparently different, though essentially the same §. In some a single prince, in others, the heads of tribes, who were really a band of princes, ruled like the rajahs of Indostan, or the satraps of Persia, with despotic sway over the people within their dominion. To this dominion there was no check but the dread of insurrection: there were no established forms in the government,

See, for a minute description of the laws and customs of the Arabs, Anc. Univ. Hist., vol. xviii., b. 4, 21. This description is by Sale.

† A curious plan was adopted in some places. "The order of succession in these cities was not hereditary, but the first child born in any of the noble families, after the king's accession, was deemed the presumptive heir to the crown. As soon, therefore, as any prince ascended the throne, a list was taken of all the pregnant ladies of quality, who were guarded in a proper manner till one of them was delivered of a son, who always received an education suitable to his birth." (Anc. Univ. Hist., vol. xviii., b. 4, c. 21, p. 377.)

Niebuhr's Travels, c. 62, p. 84.

Mod. Univ. Hist. b. 1. c. 1, p. 41. Sale's Pre. Disc., s. 1, pp. 12-15. Gagnier, Vie de Mah. vol. i. p. 18

no certain and specified laws, by which it could be controlled; neither did the manners of the people serve to diminish its mischievousness. Insurrection was the only existing check; and did no doubt in part keep down the atrocities of these rulers; but be it remembered that in every stage of society misery to a lamentable extent may be produced before the people can determine to brave the difficulties and dangers of an insurrection. Still more completely to ensure the subjection of the people, these rulers seized upon the functions and powers of religion. The ruling men were invariably the priests of the people, the propounders of oracles, and the guardians of the temples and idols *. The mysterious terrors of religion were thus added to the real dangers attendant on an opposition to the will of the governors. That will consequently was almost despotic. "After the expulsion of the Jorhamites, the government of Hejaz seems not to have continued for many centuries in the hands of one prince, but to have been divided among the heads of tribes; almost in the same manner as the Arabs of the deserts are governed at this day. At Mecca an aristocracy prevailed, where the chief management of affairs till the time of Mahommed was in the tribe of Koreish; especially after they had gotten the custody of the Caaba from the tribe of Kozrah +." But if the government were not better than that of the desert tribes, miserable indeed must have been the situation of the people. When men are congregated into cities, if every one be allowed to gratify his revenge, and punish his enemy, without recurring to the arbitration of the magistrate, the state must necessarily become one continued scene of violence and bloodshed. No security for person or property existing, there could be no accumulation, so that the horrors of poverty must necessarily have been added to the other evils arising from unceasing terror and alarm. Such was in reality the situation of the Arabian cities; every man sought to redress by his own power the injury he fancied he had received; and the peace and happiness of the com

Mod. Univ. Hist., b. 1, c. 1, p. 7. Gagnier, Intr. Vie de Mah. pp. 51-53.

+ Caaba was a temple at Mecca, held in extraor dinary veneration by the people of Arabia universally, (Sale's Pre. Disc., see p. 15,) and to which pilgrimages were made. Mahomet continued the practice. (Gagnier, Intro. Vie de Mah. pp. 56, 57.) Thus, like many other propagators of religion, moulding the forms of the religion which he attacked, to suit that which he preached.