stated, Cicero remarks that few of the youths of Athens were really handsome. With regard to the merits of a peculiar form of government, it is certain that the arts equally flourished in Greece under very opposite governments, and in the most powerful and the weakest states. Some, or perhaps all, these causes may have assisted though they alone could not have produced the results contended for. The principal cause was that the Greeks were more refined than any nation which had before existed, and the same cause which led to their excellence in poetry, ethics, and political science, led to their superiority in the arts. Another reason was their peculiar admiration and study of beauty, hereafter to be noticed; and as religion was the first mover of their art, it followed that they should endeavour to invest their gods with the most perfect form; and they were, therefore, peculiarly led to a complete and intellectual study of its elements and constitution. Again, it should also be remarked, that at the period when the arts were at the greatest perfection, civilization had just arrived at that state in which the manners of men are polished but yet natural, and consequently their attitudes and gestures were expressive and emphatical without being coarse. Their style of dress also was much better adapted to display the natural form of the body, without constraining the motion, and destroying the shape, as in more recent periods; thus perpetually affording fine models for the artist.

As in discussing the subjects relating to art it is necessary to use certain terms, with respect to the meaning of which much difficulty and some difference of opinion exist, we shall give a definition of those which are in more general use. Indeed, unless the sense in which they are used by the author is defined, the reader and the writer must often arrive at different conclusions. Of various writers on art, perhaps none has been so generally successful in defining the terms in use as Mr. Fuseli;* we shall adopt his explanation of a few which are most important to be understood.

Nature he states to be as the general permanent principle of visible objects not disfigured by accident, nor distempered by disease, not modified by fashion or local habits. Nature is a

• Lecture I.

collective idea, and though its essence exist in each individual of the species, it can never in its perfection inhabit a single object.

"With respect to beauty I do not mean to perplex with abstract ideas, and the romantic reveries of Platonic philosophy, or to inquire whether it be the result of a simple or a complex principle. As a local idea, beauty is a despotic princess, and subject to the anarchies of despotism; enthroned to-day, dethroned to-morrow. The beauty we acknowledge is that harmonious whole of the human frame, that unison of parts to one end, which enchants us;-the result of the standard set by the great masters of our arts, the ancients, and confirmed by the submissive verdict of modern imitation.

"By grace I mean that artless balance of motion and repose sprung from character, founded on propriety of character, which neither falls short of the demands nor overleaps the modesty of nature. Applied to execution it means that dexterous power, which hides the means by which it was attained, the difficulties it has conquered.

"When we say taste, we mean not crudely the knowledge of what is right in art taste estimates the degrees of excellence, and by comparison proceeds from justness to refinement. We generally confound, when speaking of art, copy with imitation, though essentially different in operation and meaning. Precision of eye, and obedience of hand are the requisites of the former, without the least pretence to choice, what to select, what to reject; whilst choice directed by judgment or taste, constitutes the essence of imitation, and alone can raise the most dexterous copyist to the noble rank of an artist. The imitation of the ancients was essential, characteristic, ideal. The first cleared nature of accident, defect, and excrescence; the second formed the stamen which connects character with the central form; the third raised the whole and the parts to the highest degree of unison.

"No word has been more indiscriminately confounded than genius;by genius, I mean that power which enlarges the circle of human knowledge, which discovers new materials in nature, or combines knowledge with novelty, whilst talent arranges, cultivates, polishes the discoveries of genius."

Without attempting to enter into, or even examine the metaphysical discus

sions relating to beauty, which have occupied so many writers, it will be interesting, in addition to Mr. Fuseli's definition, to examine what were the notions of Mr. Flaxman on this point, and the consideration of these will in some measure lead to the elucidation of the reasons of the superiority attained by the Greeks.

He defines beauty* of the human person as goodness or virtue, and wisdom in a human form best suited to their expression and exertions. "Whatever of beauty or perfection becomes an object of contemplation to our minds, whether it be purely mental, or perceived through the medium of our senses, must be derived from the beautiful and perfect itself, and may be traced back towards its divine origin; however diversified, it proceeds from this source, and directs us where to seek the principles and perfection of all science and art, of all things metaphysical, physical, and moral, which, by their mutual connexion and harmony, declare their common relation and origin: there fore, what is called beauty in the arts of sculpture and painting, must be sought for in its principles, metaphysical, physical, and moral."

It is curious also to examine what were the principles on this subject of the Greek philosophers, at the time when the arts in Greece attained their greatest excellence. In the dialogue between Socrates and the sculptor Clito, (Xenophon's Memorabilia,)Socrates concludes, "that statuary must represent the actions of the soul by form;" and in the former part of the same dialogue, Parrhasius and Socrates agree that the good and evil qualities of the soul may Be represented in the figures of man by painting. Plato, in his Dialogues, reasons to the same purpose, and declares that the good and the beautiful are one. Aristotle observes that beauty is order or grandeur; order supposes symmetry, fitness, and harmony; and in grandeur are comprised simplicity, unity, and majesty; and Aristotle concurs with Plato in acknowledging the relation between beauty and goodness, evil and deformity; and it appears to have been one of the great objects of all the ancient schools, to trace and demonstrate, not only the likeness, but the identity of beauty and goodness. So great

See the article "Beauty," in Rees's Encyclopedia, which article, and that on sculpture, were written by Mr. Flaxman.

and so universal was the admiration of beauty of person, that prizes were instituted for those who excelled in beauty and regularity of form, and the priests of some of the most celebrated temples were selected from the youths to whom prizes for beauty had been awarded. The Spartan prayer, "Give us what is good and what is beautiful," is another proof of the general sentiment on this subject.

The Greeks appear to have delighted more in imitation than in creation or action, which, perhaps, was the chief cause of the perfection they arrived at in the imitation of nature, without attempting to go too far in the representation of more than beauty of form; again the physical beauty of the race, exposed to view by gymnastic and warlike exercises, gave a right direction to the study of sculpture, and it was the conviction that the beauty of art consists more in proportion, harmony, and regularity, than in an excessive expression of any passion or action, or a superabundance of ornament, that led them to the right path, and preserved them from leaving it.

As sculpture owed its early origin to religious worship, and to the formation of images of the Deity, the peculiar feelings of the Greeks on those points materially assisted them in the attainment of excellence.

Both in the developement of modes of religion peculiar to the Dorians, and in the adoption and alteration of those of other nations, an ideal tendency may be perceived, which considered the Deity not so much in reference to the works or objects of nature as to the actions and thoughts of men; consequently their religion had little of mysticism, which belongs rather to elementary worships, but the gods assume a more human and heroic form, although not so much as in epic poetry: hence the piety of the Doric race had a peculiar and energetic character, as their notions of the gods were clear, distinct, and personal.*

Whatever may be the truth or merit of these theories, yet it must be obvious that the various causes we have stated led to the attentive, intimate, and minute study of particular character, of beauty of form and expression; and the result was the attainment of excellence in its actual representation, and the production of those specimens of

* Dorians, Müller, b. ii, c, xi. p. 9.

art which have never yet been surpassed, or even rivalled; but which only excel nature by bringing together such an assemblage of beautiful parts as nature never was known to bestow on one object.

In arranging the different styles of the beauty of Greek sculpture, Mr. Flaxman observes, that the ancients assigned the first class of beauty to the superior divinities, the second to heroes, and the third to fauns.

Of the superior gods, the sons of Saturn possess the rank of sublimity of beauty. In the fine head of Jupiter, in the pope's collection, the hair rises from the forehead, and descends in abundant flowing locks on each side of his face and neck to the shoulders, his forehead is muscular, with an expression of great strength, his nose and cheek are correspondent, his eyes express benevolence, his wise and serious brow, his placid countenance and full beard inspire reverence and awe; his figure is that of the mightiest of the superior gods,-his right arm moderately raised with his thunderbolt, or leaning on his sceptre, presents the habitual art of governing the universe. Winkelman has judiciously observed that the Greek sculptors preserved the family resemblance in the Saturnian race, with as much exactness as if they had been real portraits; therefore Jupiter's brothers strongly partake of the same character, except that Neptune's countenance is more severe, and his hair more disturbed. Pluto's hair, hanging over his forehead, gives a gloomy cast to his countenance, which is increased by his more open and starting eye.

In the youthful beauty of Apollo, Bacchus, and Mercury, the same benevolence and wisdom are expressed, modified by their peculiar characteristics and offices;-Apollo is light and strong in his make; Bacchus more soft and luxurious; and Mercury more athletic. The peculiarity of Hercules is magnanimity, and unconquerable strength.

The heroes have a more simple character throughout, approaching nearer to common nature. The fauns may be ranged in the lowest class of beauty expressed in the human figure: although their persons are youthful and rather handsome, their proportions are shorter than those of the classes above named, and sometimes their muscles are turgid and tendinous, accommodated to their sylvan habits and activity; their rounded

faces have a portion of rustic good nature; but their united eye-brows, eyes placed diagonally to the nose, small hollowed noses, and grinning mouths, express some mixture of savage, servile, and mischievous dispositions.

The most engaging and captivating species of beauty exists in the female sex, this was expressed in perfection by the Greeks in their superior classes of statues; the large eye and full under-lip of Juno, gave an air of haughtiness to her countenance, her limbs are round, and her figure majestic. Minerva's figure partakes of Juno's majesty; but her face is not so full, and has an expression of abstracted wisdom. Venus is represented as an assemblage of female charms, her form is delicate, perfect, and elegant in the highest degree, her motion graceful, and her countenance expressive of love and sweetness:

a reference to the casts in this country, and the prints of the most celebrated ancient statues will convince the reader of the skill and general accuracy of these remarks of Mr. Flaxman.

BASSO RELIEVOS.

In treating of sculpture, those works which are arranged under the class of basso relievos, or low relief, must not be omitted; this is the representation of figures on a back ground, in such a manner that no part of them is detached from it: alto relievo, or high relief, is a modification of the same class, and has the larger parts attached to the back ground, whilst the smaller stand out free from it; to these two styles may be added a third species of relief, which was abtained by cutting or sinking, making the object represented below the plane of the original ground, a mode of working scarcely ever employed in modern times, but of which many specimens may be seen in Egyptian sculpture.

Basso relievo, although an important province of sculpture, is in a particular manner allied to architecture. As every considerable work of this kind must be made for the pediment, frieze, or panel of a building or architectural form, and, therefore, the general shape of the ground, the distribution and proportion of the figures must be subservient to the surrounding and containing parts, in order that they may produce a beautiful and perfect whole.

Basso relievo was originally used as pictorial writing, similar to, or the same as, hieroglyphics, and as such is, com

mon to all nations in the earliest infancy of the arts; but it was reserved to the Greeks to perfect this, as well as the other arts of design. The basso relievos which were used in filling the friezes and the tympanums, and were placed in the metopes of the great temples, executed during the time of Phidias and the other great artists, show that the art of sculpture in this department quite equalled that which was devoted to the production of entire statues we have, fortunately, an opportunity of ascertaining the truth of this from the originals of the frieze and metopes brought from the Parthenon at Athens.* Some of the works of the earliest sculptors, on the revival of the arts in Italy, are in this style, and many of them are of great interest.

Donatello executed bronze basso relievos on the two pulpits of St. Lorenzo, at Florence, the two principal subjects of which, are the crucifixion and interment of Christ, in which the expression is admirable; but the work of this description that obtained the highest reputation, was the bronze gate, executed by Lorenzo Ghiberti, for the baptistery of St. John at Florence, consisting of ten compartments, filled with subjects from the Old Testament; the whole is of gilt bronze, and it was said by Michael Angelo "to deserve to be the gate of paradise" from this period down to modern times, little which was excellent was executed in this style. It may be considered the pride of England, to possess the beautiful designs of Flaxman,from Homer, Hesiod, Dante, and Eschylus, rivalling in beauty and grandeur of com

The chief of the marbles in the British Museum called the Elgin marbles, formed part of the orna

ments of the temple of Minerva, or Parthenon, in the Acropolis at Athens, and afford an example of the judicions use of the three different species of sculpture. This temple consisted of the cella, or the interior space included within the wall of the temple; a row of side columns, and eight columns at each end; in the porticos the frieze of the entablature is composed of Doric architectural ornaments called triglyphs, and of sculptured ornaments called metopes, the triglyph Leing over the centre of each column, and of each intercolumniation, and the me

topes occupying the intervals, representing, in high relief, the combat of the Lapitha and the Centaurs. The frieze of the cella was an uninterrupted series of sculpture, about thirty-six feet from the base, running round the upper part of the wall; this was about nine feet within the external row of columns, and represented in low relief a Grecian procession. In the tympanum of the pediment were placed perfect statues of a colossal size, the metopes, which, from their distance from the eye, required high relief, and the frieze which was within, and was lighted only from the intercolumniations, and was only seen from the ambulatory, was in low relief, as the violent projections of high relief seen from an acute angle, would have perplexed and defeated the artist's design.

position the works of the best time of ancient art. But if we pride ourselves on this possession, it must excite regret and some feeling akin to shame, when we recollect, that notwithstanding the great sums expended in the patronage of art in this country, he is gone to his grave, without ever having, during a long life, been commissioned to execute any one of those fine compositions in marble. Thorwaldsen, the Dane, now at Rome, should be noticed as having been very successful in his designs and works in this branch of the art.

Various materials appear to have been used by the ancients, and even during the best period of art, in the formation of the same statue, particularly in colossal works. This mixture, however, is totally disapproved of by modern taste.

Exactness of imitation is more to be sought in sculpture than in painting; because, unassisted by colour, it is necessary that the requisites of imitation to the extent of form, should be nearly, if not entirely, complete, in order to create any conception of merit; but as the pleasure derived from sculpture is unconnected with deception, any attempt at colouring statues, or any artifice, such as adding real dresses, &c. must be offensive to a cultivated taste. That which is known to be mere trick, must lose all pleasure, when the surprise created by the deception is past. The Greeks, however, often composed one figure of different materials, such as brass and marble, ivory and gold, but not, probably, for the purpose of actual deception, or greater exactitude of imitation; they also, occasionally, put gems or silver in the place of the eyes. There are also not wanting authorities for supposing that they occasionally coloured their marble statues, to imitate life, but it is hardly possible to conceive with any advantage; though Mr. Flaxman, in his lectures, has supposed that in some a particularly beneficial effect might have been so produced.

cases

There was a statue of Augustus in amber, and at the celebration of funeralia, as those of Sylla, at public exon other extraordinary hibitions, or occasions, statues are mentioned as having been made of aromatic gums, and materials of the most combustible nature; and amongst the odd conceits of the ancient artists, may be mentioned a statue of the all-powerful goddess of love and beauty made of loadstone, which attracted a Mars of iron! The combination of