HALF-YEARLY RETROSPECT OF FRENCH LITERATURE.

approximated its ruin, it received in its very cradle the germs of all those vices, and that corruption which bring on the ruin of empires. Patriotism, simplicity of manners, the love of liberty, a passion for war, and all those virtues which elevated Rome to the climax of grandeur, bad long disappeared from the earth; while selfishness, pomp, pussillani mity, and a spirit at once haughty and servile, formed the principal features of the character of those citizens who constituted the empire. From the very first ton, this New Rome was attacked on all sides, by enemies much more nume. Tous, and infinitely more valiant, than the forces opposed by her to them: the Goths, the Slavi, the Huns, and nearly all the nations which overwhelmed Eu. rope during the grand migration, assailed her in their turn; the Persians, the Saraeens, and the other conquerors of Asia, Afterwards commenced a long as well as oninterrupted attack; while so far from enjoying that degree of tranquillity with in, which would have permitted her to apply herself entirely to defence against such formidable enemies, the empire was torn asunder by political factions, and theological disputes still more bit ter than the former.

To these the chief men in the state, the grandces, and in fine all classes of the community, resigned themselves without reserve, while they entirely forgot those external disorders which inenaced their common country. It frequently happened that the intrigues of the court, and the ambition and avarice of a few eunuchs, brought Constantinople itself to the very brink of destruction: notwith standing this, the empire still supported itself, during more than a thousand years, Nothing is the effect of chance, for there every where exists a series of causes and effects, which produce those events which we denominate history. It frequently happens indeed that they escape, our enquiries, but it appertains to the historian to withdraw the veil that covers them; and M. Engelstoft in his description of the military state of Byzantium during the time of Justinian I. has thrown great light on a phenomenon, which at the first aspect appears to be almost inconceivable. He, in common with all Europe, has been struck with the sudden and repeated capture of the capi. tals of the most flourishing empires; and he conceived that an analysis of this reign, during which Constantinople itself was besieged, although the arms of the emperor were victorious in Asia, Africa,

and Italy, might contribute greatly to explain these events. Here follows an outline of his works, which, in addition to a profound inquiry into the ordinary sources of intelligence, presents many excellent remarks, inferences, and deductions.

The Danube, for a long time, constituted the grand barrier between the Roman empire and the barbarous Ɖa> tions. The Dacians and the Geta, known also by the general name of the Sarmatians, inhabited the left bank, and made frequent irruptions into Thrace, Mesia, and Illyria. Augustus was content to oppose legions and strong for tresses on the right bank, to these; but Trajan actually crossed the river, forced the barbarians to retire towards the, worth, and thus established a - Roman province beyond the Danube. This for a time ensured tranquillity to the possessions on the right side; but notwithstanding that, several of the northern nations, and among these the Vandals and Goths, at length advanced towards the Danube, and forced the emperor Aurelian, in the year 274, once more to confine the dominions of Rome to the provinces situate on the south side of the river. But even then the provinces near to the Danube, enjoyed, for almost a century, a considerable des gree of tranquillity, because the barbarous nations happened, at that periud, to make war on each other. At length, in $69, the Huns, having arrived from the heart of Asia, forced the Goths to cross over to the right bank of the Danube; all the provinces, from the Bosphorus to the Julian Alps, were then by turns a prey to these horrible invasions; and even after the dissolution of the mo marchy of the Huns, the Lombards and the Gepida, who replaced them, rendered this portion of the empire equally unquiet.

Such was the situation of affairs wher Justinian I. assumed the reins of government; and the reign of this emperor, proved a fantastical mixture of the most brilliant success, and the most humiliating defeats. The Huns had been forced by new nations (A.D. 454,) to retire to the borders of the Euxine Sea and the Palus Mæotis; the Ostrogoths pos sessed Pannonia (Upper Hungary); and the Gepide, and the Dacians, the country to the west (Transylvania). At length, about the year 489, the Gepida possessed themselves of both countries, whence they were however chaced, A.D. 565, by the Lombards, who, in

theiz

their turn, were forced to yield them up
to the Avars. After the Goths and the
Hus, the Slavi, a nation entirely diffe.
rent from both Goths and Germans, en-
tered the country and occupied a portion
of it, from Dacia to the Tanais; these
were called Sarinatians by the Romans, who
distinguished three nations among them:
1. The Vunedi, who dwelt beyond
the Carpathian mountains, and extended
themselves towards the Baltic sea.

2. The Slaveni, who occupied the
Country from the frontiers of Styria and
Carinthia, to the Dniester and the Da-
nube, and on the northern side, as far as
the Vistula,

And 8. The Antes, who resided nearer the Euxine sea, and who lived after the manner of Nomades, or wandering tribes. These two latter nations were accus. tomed almost annually to make irruptions into the provinces appertaining to Justinian.

The Bulgarians occupied all the country situate between the Caspian and the Black Sea; these also comprehended three

nations.

1. The Urogues.

2. The Onogures, or Ungares.
And 3. The Sarugures. The last of
these were annihilated by the Persians;
but the two first, being pushed forward
by the Avars, advanced towards Europe
and the Danube, and menaced the Greek
empire.

There is no portion of history more
Tomplicated than the migration of all
these barbarous nations. It is frequently
impossible to point out, with any degree
of certainty, whence they issued, what
order of march they pursued, and where
they fixed their habitations. The ac
counts of the ancient historians, and
more especially the Byzantine writers,
so far from clearing up these facts, only
embarrass them the more, because they
confound the whole, and often deceive
themselves respecting both the origin
and the power of those tribes, sometimes
joining those whom they ought to sepa-
rate, and, on the contrary, not unfre-
quently separating those who ought to
have been united. It is only within the
last fifty years, that clearer notions have
been entertained respecting this impor-
'tant branch of history.

An incredible number of forts had been constructed along the right bank of the Danube, all the way from Singidunum (near to where Belgrade now stands,) to the Euxine sea, for the express purpose of arresting the incursions of the nations alluded to above. All the

maritime coast, from the mouth of the Danube to the Bosphoms of Thrace, together with the internal parts of Moesia, Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, and the other provinces, were furnished with them. One hundred and thirty-two. legions were distributed, partly in the heart of the country, and partly on the frontiers; and yet, notwithstanding such. formidable preparations, there never elapsed a single year in which those same territories, although thus defended by so many forts, and such a number of legions, were not devastated by the bar. barians. The truth is, that those were no longer the legions with which Rome had conquered the world; they were cowardly, effeminate, addicted to luxury, and composed chiefly of foreigners, who, so far from defending the empire, frequently combined with its enemies, and participated in the booty acquired by them. The number of soldiers of which cach legion had been composed, was now reduced to one quarter, a circumstance which greatly diminished botha their confidence and courage. In order to form a just idea of the state of degra dation into which the armies of Rome had relapsed, it is only necessary to read the introduction to the History of Charles, V. by Professor Robertson.

But the legions were not only reduced, they were also divided in the following

manner;

1. Into those destined to guard the person of the emperor.

And 2. Those employed in defending the frontiers.

The former of these enjoyed all the advantages resulting from the service, without experiencing any of the dangers; they were rarely employed in war, and passed their time in idleness, The latter, on the contrary, were exposed to all the fatigues of the service, in addition to which they were badly paid, and consequently becoming discontented, were but little disposed to sacrifice themselves for the defence of the empire. Favour alone, presided at the distribution of recompences and distinctions, merit was not considered as any thing. The infantry, in which had 'consisted the strength of the armies of the commonwealth, was now despised; and after the manner of barbarians, they no longer esteemed any other troops but cavalry. The foreign foe experienced little or no resistance; and Belisarius and Narses were indebted for their success chiefly to their own valour and their genius.

The picture of the calamities expe

rienced

rienced by the Greek empire, during the capital, and the former could never be long reign of Justinian, was truly fright- said to be subdued until the latter had ful. Nearly all the provinces became been captured. Constantine, Theod)depopulated, and Italy alone was re- sius the Younger, Justinian, Heraclius, duced to less than one quarter of her in- had all augmented the fortifications to habitants. Even Constantinople herself, wards the sea, while the harbour itseif although the head of the empire, was was defended by an iron clain. The menaced with a siege by the Bulgarians; extremity of the Chersonese, on which but she was saved from this imminent Constantinople was built, hari been dedanger by her fortunate position on one fended by means of a wall, built under hand, and the strength of her fortifica- the inspection of the Emperor Anastations on the other. If one were disposed sius. The Bulgarians, who towards the to make a comparison between the local end of the reign of Justinian, crossed the situation of ancient and new Rome, it Danube, were arrested in their progress would be greatly in favour of the latter. by these fortifications alone. The sol Rome seemed destined only to be the diery had wholly degenerated, and the capital of Italy, but the moment that the emperor's guards were chiefly composed empire extended beyond Italy, its situa- of cowards. It was with difficulty that tion presented great disadvantages. Belisarius could assemble the appearThe communication between the capital ance of an army, to confront the enemy, and the provinces always experienced and he beat them by his able magreat difficulties and delays; in addition nouvres alone; but having fallen into to which, it might have been easily in- disgrace he was unable to derive any adterrupted in time of war. An invasion vantage from the victory, while Justiof Italy, and the siege of Rome, menaced nian, although conqueror, submitted to the empire with destruction, although the custom, equally dangerous and the provinces might remain untouched; shameful, of purchasing the safety of his in addition to this, Rome was defended provinces, by means of money. with difficulty, and had been frequently lost and retaken in the course of the same war. The last of the emperors had already experienced all the inconves niences incident to its position, and they accordingly preferred to take up their residence at Milan or Ravenna. Constantinople, ou the contrary, united all the advantages incident to the most fa. vourable position, for being built on the borders of the Bosphorus, it was capable of keeping up a communication with all parts of the ancient world. The north and the south, the east and the west, possessed an equal facility of access; it seemed expressly created by nature to govern both Europe and Asia: accordingly, in the course of a few years, it was found to equal Rome, both in point of extent and magnificence.

During the middle ages, such Europeans as possessed any degree of curiosity, repaired to Byzantium, for the express purpose of admiring its magnificence; and perhaps the pleasure of be holding that superb city, weighed not a little with those who determined to make A pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The existence of the empire was so essentially connected with that of the capital, that this perhaps was the chief cause why it supported itself during a thousand years after the fall of the western world. In short, during the period just alluded to, the whole empire was confined to the

"Lettre sur Armenie, &c.-A letter relative to Armenia, Armenian literature, &c. &e. &c. by FATHER VILLA-FOR, of Alexandria, a Missionary in Armenia.

Asia was formerly productive of great ́ men, memorable events, celebrated wars, and wonderful revolutions: the arts and sciences shone there with astonishing splendour, while Rome and Greece were not as yet in existence. In the interesting history of that happy climate, we discover the origin of nations, the foandations of the primitive cities, the esta blishment of monarchical government, the causes of the first wars, and the first conquests. Of all the eastern countries, the history of Armenia may be justly regarded as one of the most curious in the universe. No people ever experienced such frequent revolutions; no region was ever the theatre of so many tragical scenes; of wars so memorable, or of events so extraordinary. That country seemed to be the rendezvous whither all the great captains of antiquity repaired, in order to obtain palms, representative of their glory. Cyrus, Semiramis, Tigranes, Arsaces, Alexander, Mithridates, Sylla, Lucullus, Morena, Gabinius, Cassius, Pompey, Mark Antony, Cæsar, and many other heroes, have illus trated that region of the world by their grand exploits. This land of happiness, this second Eden, was destined to be for some time the scene of glory; and it

seemed