bute or taxes. It is rather an Arabic than a Persian term, though both countries use it under different inflexions. The Arabic root is khazi, 'a blush or ruddy flush,' whether from fulness, shame, or modesty; whence the verb khaza, to produce blushes, erubescence, or suffusion;' and hence khazan in Persian signifies autumn, or the season of fulness and erubescence ;' while khazain in Arabic is a garner, treasury, or repository for the fulness of the autumnal months; literally cella, cellula, gaza, or gazophylacia, as explained by Hesychius.

227. Vogel and Plenck are overloaded with synonymous terms, or what may, for common purposes, be so regarded; and perpetually aiming, like Sauvages, in the preceding instance, to discover a distinction where none exists, they have multiplied their list of diseases, as we have already seen, almost without number. The discrimination of Cullen has here been employed to the highest advantage, and is entitled to the thanks of every one. Celsus is in this respect peculiarly correct; he adheres to the best technical term supplied by his own tongue; and, though he carefully gives us its Greek synonym, he never changes it for any other term, whether Greek or Latin.

228. (3). In improving the technology of an art or science it seeins of great importance not only that all unnecessary terms should be banished, but that those retained should be simplified and abbreviated as much as may be without injuring their force or precision. Nothing can be more repulsive to the eye of a learner, or more inconvenient to the memory of an adept, than the long cacophonous compounds with which the science of nosology has been loaded by several German writers; such as the pothopatridalgia of Zwinger, for which, to the consolation of every one's lips and ears, Nenter auspiciously invented nostalgia; the ancyloblepharon, hydrenterocele, and others already noticed of Vogel, for which it is scarcely worth while to look for better to supply their place, as they import mere shadows of real diseases; and such specific epithets as spondylexarthreticus and hydrocatarrhophicus, employed in the nosology of Plouquet, but far more likely to produce than to remove confusion. To this point the author has endeavoured to keep his eye steadily directed; he has avoided compound terms as much as possible; and, when compelled to have recourse to them, has aimed at restraining them within compass.

229. Much of the character of words in respect to dimensions and euphony, as well as to precision, depends upon the common prefixes and suffixes which it is occasionally found necessary to employ; and which in some branches of science, and especially in that of chemistry, create and regulate considerably more than half their nomenclature.

230. This subject opens a wide field, though the consideration of it, for the present, must be confined to a very narrow compass. It is altogether new, not only to medicine, but, as far as the author is acquainted, to Greek philology; at east, after an extensive enquiry, he has not been able to obtain any assistance from books professedly devoted to it. There seems much

reason to believe that the auxiliary parts of every compound term, not only in medical technology, but through the whole range of the Greek tongue, had, when first employed, distinct and definite meanings, and limited the radicals, with which they were associated, to peculiar modifications of a common idea. To these meanings we can still trace many of them, though the greater number, like most of the elements in the Chinese characters, have passed through so many changes, that it is difficult, and in some instances perhaps impossible, to follow up the analysis to their original sources. From the novelty of the subject the author has, perhaps, a fair claim upon the reader's indulgence; the enquiry, however, is worthy of being carried much farther than he has time or limits to pursue it; and he hopes, and has reason to believe, that it will be thus extended, before long, by a friend, who has far more competency for the purpose than he can pretend to.

231. The suffixes employed in medical technology are more numerous than the prefixes, and the following is a list of those in most common use:

too frequently. Some of them however may be suppressed, as synonyms or duplicates of others; while it should be a rule never to employ any one of the remainder but when absolutely necessary to distinguish the compound into which it enters from the root itself, or from another compound derived from the same root, by the addition of an idea to which it is uniformly re

stricted.

234. Algia, copus, and odyne, are direct synonyms; to which may also be added agra, for, though of a somewhat different radical meaning, it is commonly superadded, like all the three former, to express the general idea of pain or ache. And hence, very much to the perplexity of the learner and the incumbrance of the technical vocabulary, we have cephal-algia for head-ache, gastr-odyne for belly-ache, chiragra and pod-agra for gout-ache in the hand or foot. And, worse than this, we have ost-algia, ost-odynia, ost-agra, and osto-copus, to signify one and the same affection of the bones. Now it may be necessary to retain algia, which is perhaps the most popular of the whole, but we should as far as possible banish all the rest; and with the exception of agra in the single instance of pod-agra, which cannot readily be dismissed, none of the others will be met with in the course of the ensuing arrangement. Parodynia will indeed be found, but in this case odynia is the root itself.

235. Esis, osis, itis, oma, and iasis, have been employed perhaps for ages, and several of them very generally throughout the Greek tongue, as mere terminations, without any direct reference to their origins and probably without a recollection or belief that they have any significant origins, or that those origins can be traced: in which case they would become simple terminating synonyms, and, in the abbreviating aim of a technical nomenclature, ought to follow the fate of the generality of the preceding list. Some of them, indeed, can well be spared; but accident, or a cause not easy to be explained, has given a peculiar and useful meaning to others, though very different from their radical sense, and these may be advantageously retained. The first three are probably derived from tw or its different compounds, and together with the Latin term igo, which is perhaps a corruption of ago, imply the common idea of ago, mitto,'' motion, action, or putting forth,' and consequently, in medical combination, of morbid motion or action.' Esis (oc) is a direct derivative from ew, as is obvious in paresis, literally 'submissio,' 'remissio,' 'laxatio,' 'restraint or inability' of 'moving or putting forth;' whence by Aretaus, and various other Greek writers, it is used sy nonymously with paralysis. We meet with the same word and the same radical idea in proesis, synesis, and other compounds of the same root. Osis (ωσις or εσις) descends in like manner from μ, 'sum,' itself a derivative of t; whence osia or ousia (wola or sola) is literally 'ens, essentia, substantia,' the thing put forth in being, action, or motion.' Itis (rne) is as clearly an immediate derivation from pau; itself, like the preceding, a ramification from ew, and imports, not merely action, but, when strictly true to itself,

impetuous or violent action' The literal rendering of Eua is 'feror impetû,' and that of S is, temerarius, audax, præceps periculorum.' While the direct origin of igo betrays itself in all its compounds, for vertigo (deriving igo from ago) is literally rotatory motion or dizziness;' serpigo, serpentine motion or course,' peculiarly describing a particular modification of herpetic eruption to which the term serpigo is applied.

236. Iasis, and oma, convey different ideas as issuing from different radicals. Iasis ('tariç) is literally sanatio, from 'taouat, sano, medeor,' and hence necessarily imports, in composition, 'medendus,' or 'ad sanationem spectans.' Oma (pa) is as obviously an inflection of 'wμos, crudus, ferus, imperfectus,' as is its real meaning in sarc-oma, distinctly crude, wild, imperfect flesh' ather-oma, crude, incocted pulp or pap.' But if oma be preceded by the letters pt, as in ptoma (ra) it is then derived from TITT, procido,' and constantly imports procidence or prolapse; as in pro-ptoma, a prolapse of any part; archo-ptoma, a prolapse of the anus.' This is sometimes written ptosis, as in colpoptosis, 'a prolapse of the vagina;' hysteroptosis, 'a prolapse of the uterus:' but for the sake of perspicuity, and especially to the learner, one mode only ought to be adhered to, and perhaps the first is the best.

237. Asma (aopa) is strictly 'incantamentum,' enchantment, incantation; and, in a looser sense, possession, seizure. Osma, asmus, esmus, and ismus, are mere varieties of asma; and that they were at first intended to denote this idea we may judge from the terms phantasma, enthusiasmus, phricasmus, marasmus, phrenismus, priapismus. It became long afterwards a terminal member of tenesmus, rheumatismus, ptyalismus, when the original sense was nearly or altogether lost sight of. And since this period the entire group have been employed not only so generally, but in such a multiplicity of senses, that we can neither banish them nor define them; whence, like esis and osis, they must remain to be had recourse to as mere final adjuncts whenever necessary, though the less frequently employed the better.

238. It is clear, then, as well from actual analysis as from the genius of the Greek tongue itself, that each of these terminations had a distinct signification when first introduced; although it is equally clear that most of them have for some centuries been employed loosely and indiscriminately as mere final syllables. In many instances none of them are wanted; and in áll such cases they ought, unquestionably, to be dropped as redundant; and, occasionally, they have been so. Thus the myopiasis of Vogel is advantageously shortened by Plenck to myopia, as at first written by Linnæus; and, for the same reason, mydriasis ought to have been written mydria. So chlorosis, if it were to be formed in the present day, would be chloria, and exoneirosis, exoneiria. Many of the terms introduced by Dr. Young seem to be formed directly upon this basis, and are highly entitled to attention; as phlysis, palmus, pneusis.

239. In various instances, again, we find, as

already hinted at, several of the terminations, apparently from some accidental cause, taking a peculiar bearing which it would be right to encourage, as long as they are retained, so as to give them a direct and definite sense. Such especially is the case with itis, which, from the time of Boerhaave, has been progressively employed to express organic inflammation, as in cephalitis, carditis, gastritis, and most similar affections. In this sense, therefore, when employed at all, it ought to be employed exclusively. And here the etymological idea is directly consonant with the practical: for, as observed already, it imports increased and impetuous action. A few terms only stand in our way, upon this point, even at present, as rachitis, hydrorachitis, ascites, and tympanites; all which, however, are of little consequence, as they have good synonyms, or may be easily varied, as the reader will perceive in the ensuing arrangement. 240. Oma has, in like manner, from some cause or other, a general idea attached to its use, not easy to be explained from its primary signification: it is that of external protuberance, and to this, therefore, it should be confined. We meet with this idea in ecchymoma, staphyloma, atheroma, steatoma, sarcoma, and carcinoma. It does not easily apply to glaucoma; but as this was as frequently called by the Greeks glaucosis, and by the Romans glaucedo, we need not be troubled even with this slight exception. The therioma of Celsus, though continued by Vogel, is banished from general use; and, if it were not, this would also admit of a ready change to theriosis.

241. Iasis is almost as generally appropriated in the present day to denote diseases of the skin, unconnected with fever; the cause of which it seems, also, as difficult to discover as in either of the preceding instances: but, this being the fact, the hint should be taken and the necessary limit applied. We have sufficient exemplification of this remark in elephantiasis, leontiasis, psoriasis, pityriasis, phthiriasis, helminthiasis (applied by Plenck to cutaneous worms and larves of all kinds, except those of the pediculus, but to which malis is preferable) and tyriasis, importing in the same author a peculiar variety of lepra. To these we may add ichthyiasis, as in this case it ought to be written, instead of ichthyosis. Many of these terms are unnecessary, and may be well spared, but they serve as examples of the general turn the final iasis has been lately taking, and to which, whenever it is made use of, it would be right to attend. Satyriasis, sardiasis, and one or two other terms, form exceptions to the general tendency; but they are not wanted, as will be readily perceived in the ensuing pages; while all but the first have been long obsolete, and are almost forgotten. Hypochondriasis is not, strictly speaking, a Greek term. It is comparatively of modern origin, and may be conveniently exchanged for hypochondrias.

242. Cele (anλn) retains generally, to the present hour, its original sense, which is that of a yielding tumor,' especially a yielding tumor produced by the protrusion of a soft part; as in bronchocele, sarcocele, glossocele, bubonocele.

Rhagia (payia) is, properly speaking, an elision of hæmorr-rhagia, from 'pnoow, rumpo,' to burst or break; and hence uniformly denotes a preternatural flux of blood by the bursting of one or more blood-vessels, as in menorrhagia, rhinorrhagia, and enterrhagia. While rhoa ('poca), from 'pew fluo,' to flow, imports, with almost equal uniformity, a preternatural flux of any other fluid, as in diarrhoea, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, ottorrhoea. In perirrhoea, as employed by Hippocrates in the sense of enuresis, we have an exception, as we have also in the modern compound menorrhoea, which denotes a natural flux, and in a healthy proportion. But the first has long grown obsolete and yielded to enuresis ; and for the second we may employ catamenia, or menia without the preposition, which is totally superfluous, and omitted in all the compounds of μv, as also in the Latin homonyms menses and menstruatio. All these therefore may remain untouched, and are sufficiently correct in their present use.

243. Odes (wons) uniformly imparts par, similis,' like or akin, to the subject with which it is connected, as in typhodes, icterodes, phlegmonodes: and is probably derived from woɛ, 'hoc modo.'

244. Illa, ula, illaris, ularis, well known as Latin diminutive terminations, are perhaps derived, as will be more particularly shown hereafter, from the Greek vλŋ (yle or ule), materies,' and import, therefore, of the matter, make, or nature of,' as in pupilla or pupula, pustula, fibula. These are opposed by the suffix osus, uniformly a Latin augment, derived perhaps, like osis above, from wola or ovoia, substance, essence, power:' hence undula is a little wave;' undosus full of waves;' cellularis 'having little cells;' cellulosus full of little cells.' This distinction has not been sufficiently attended to by medical writers, and we have in consequence seen the two suffixes occasionally confounded.

245. The prefixes or initial particles or propositions have far less generally departed from their original sense, though many of them exhibit great looseness, and very different significations. In grouping them we shall find that a, caco, dys, and para, though separated from each other by shades of difference, are all privative or debasing; and that ec, ex, epi, hyper, though separated in like manner, are all augmentative or elevating. It would be better perhaps that a should be limited to the idea of total privation, as in agenesia, or aphoria: but the laxity of its use, not only through the whole nomenclature of medicine, but the whole of the Greek tongue, is an effectual bar to such an attempt, as we may readily perceive in atonia, apnoea, adipsia, asthenia, in which it is merely debasing or defective: and it is in this sense that it often becomes synonymous with dys, para, and caco, as in dyspnoea, paralysis, and cacodia (defective power of smelling). Dys, indeed, in its strictest sense, should convey the double idea of defect with difficulty or distress, as in dysenteria, and dysmenorrhea; and caco the double idea of defect with corruption or depravity, as in cachexia, cacophonia: but this distinction has been little

attended to. Para occasionally embraces a wider range than any of the rest, and runs precisely parallel with the Latin malè, or the Teutonic mes, or mis, so frequent in compound words of our own and the French tongue. In anatomy, however, para is often employed in the sense of apud or juxta, bordering on, or hard by'-and in words derived from anatomy it retains this sense in the vocabulary of diseases, as in parotis, paronychia, with no small confusion to the learner and consequently gives a sense that should be otherwise provided for.

:

246. It would be better still to avoid the use of all these prefixes as much as possible, with the exception of a, which cannot be spared; for, where they convey the direct sense of a they are not wanted, and, where they convey no other than that of general morbid action, they are commonly, though not always, superfluous expletives; since the science, in whose service they are thus employed, necessarily implies such an idea, as well without them as with them.

247. The opposite initials ec, or ex, epi, or eph', and hyper, denote alike the general idea of out of, outwards, over, above, in their primary sense, or when applied to place, as in ectropium, epidemicus, hyperostosis; but that of augmentation or excess in their secondary sense, or when applied to quantity or quality, as in ecstasis, epiphora, hyperuresis.

248. En is an initial of very extensive range as well as signification; and it has this peculiar property, that, in different senses, it becomes an antagonist to both the preceding groups in the one or other of their general meanings. In its primary sense, or as applied to place, it imports within, below; as in encephalon, emphysema; and consequently opposes the primary sense of ec, epi, hyper: while in its secondary sense, or as applied to quantity or quality, it exactly accords with these prepositions, and imports superiority or excess, and in like manner opposes the general idea conveyed by a, caco, and dys; of which we have examples in enthusiasma and enuresis. En appears therefore to be as necessary an initial particle in the medical vocabulary as a; and with these two we should seldom feel at a loss for any other; for as a is capable of supplying the place of all the rest in the first set, so en is capable of performing the same office for hose of the second. Hypo (vw), in its signification of below or downwards, is sometimes called upon to act the part of an ally, as in hypogastrium, and hypocondrium, and their derivatives hypogastrocele, and hypocondrias or hypocondriasis; but this is seldom the case, and at all times obtrudes an assistance of which en is not in want: whence hypo might easily share in the preceding proscription. In this general view of the subject, en seems at first sight to be untrue to itself: but it is not difficult to explain the apparent contradiction. En runs precisely parallel with the Latin altè. The leading idea of both is power or precedency;' and this, whether the order of advance be from below upwards, or from above downwards. In measuring rank and station, we take the former scale, and speak of high posts and dignities; in measuring intellectual qualities we take the latter, and speak of pro

In

found judgment and wisdom. The Greek en and the Latin altè are equally applicable to both; and hence it is that in our own tongue, and indeed in most of the dialects of Europe, high and deep occasionally becoming synonyms, and the same general meaning may be expresse.l by either. In one respect, indeed, the Greek and Latin terms differ; the former importing depth in its primary, and height in its secondary sense; and the latter importing height in its primary, and depth in its secondary sense. all these cases, however, the difference of the two meanings is easily understood by the context, and it would be hardly worth while to attempt to limit the Greek en to either sense if we were able. En is a short and tractable intitial, and must remain equally to form a contrast with a, and with er or epi; in the former case to import ascendancy or superiority, as being applied to quantity or quality; and in the latter case to import descendancy or inferiority, as being applied to place; with which distinction before us its meaning can never be mistaken.

249. A word or two will suffice for the remaining prefixes. Cata (kara) and apo. (ano) are two of the most frequent. They have been very little introduced into nosological terms of late; but in those of early writers are far more frequent, and exhibit a great variety of senses; most of which, however, in respect to either prefix, are capable of being resolved into the general idea of iteration or duplicate action, or ideas that obviously ramify from this fountain, and which are usually expressed by the Latin and English particle re; as in catapsyxis, re-frigeration; cataspasma, re-traction; catamenia, remenstruation (importing its regular return); apostema, re-cession, abscession or abscess; apothesis, re-placement or reduction of a dislocated bone. Whence again apo is generally used in the sense of back or from, as in apogeusia, apositia, backward, tardy, defective taste or appetite; while both are far more frequently used emphatically or in a superlative sense, as importing reduplicate action or double force; of which we have examples in catacauma, a burn; catagma, a fracture; catalysis for paralysis, catarrhus, apoplexia, apocyesis (parturition). In this signification both are evidently redundant; nor are they much marked in any other.

We

250. Peri (πɛρɩ) continues uniformly true to the sense of circum, and is limited to terms derived from anatomy, as peripneumonia and peritonitis. Dia (dua) is nearly as single in its meaning; or rather the different significations in which it is used are capable of being arranged under one leading idea, that of separation, which is the only idea it should be allowed to convey, if ever employed in the coinage of new terms. trace this general sense in diabetes and diarrhoea, a passing off, or flowing through;' diacrisis and diagnosis, a judgment or distinction, by the separation of one symptom from another; diastole and diastasis, a dilatation or separation of part from part.' Syn (ovv), and its derivatives sym and sy, are uniformly expressive of conjunction or association.

251. Such are the significations assigned to these auxiliaries whenever employed in the en