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the boy being a poor orphan, the girl is able, by her work, to maintain him till he is of years; and if they had any cattle when married, they would probably increase to a good stock by the time he is major. If the woman proves with child, before it is thought natural for the husband to be the father of it, ftill, as he has a husband, no notice is taken of it; but probably the priest may give her fome private penance. The ceremony of marriage and confummation is not fo ridiculous as it formerly was faid to have been. The bride does not prefent her bridegroom with the whip. The bride and bridegroom are married in prefence of their friends and relations at church; thereafter they return home and make merry with their guests; and, at the ufual time of night, go to bed, when their friends leave them till next day. In fhort every thing is carried on with as great decorum and modesty as with us. And I never heard that the men treated their wives but with the greatest tenderness and affection. One great occafion why they are young married, is, that their children may be able, if neceffary, to fupport them in their old age.'

An extract from the author's character of the Circaffians, we are perfuaded, will not be unacceptable to many of our readers.

• The Circaffians are a comely, beautiful, well made people, both men and women; they are generally of a large fize, and are very good foldiers; their arms are bows, arrows, and fcymitars, but they fhoot well with a fingle ball out of rifled pieces their principal people are only in poffeffion of firearms. Thofe under the Ruffian protection are governed by their own princes, the chief of whom is called Békovitch. He is a major-general of irregulars in the Ruffian army: but he never was ordered to leave Circaffia, where it is thought he can be of the greateft fervice to the empire. There are other Circaffian princes under the Ruffian government, quite independent of one another: But none fo much honoured as he is. Though the Circaffians honour their princes much, yet they cannot abfolutely command them to any piece of service, unless they are fo inclined themselves; wherefore it is always neceffary to get a majority on their fide, and the prince is ob liged to divide all the fpoils, every one in the expedition having a right to a fhare, and if the prince at any time, gets prefents from the emprefs, which they do frequently, every one of his fubjects expects either a part, if divifable, or fome. thing equivalent if otherways. They under Ruffia, are fo far fubject to the Ruffians that they fwear to be fubject to the ge neral laws for the good of Ruffia and themselves: but the Ruffians never offer to encroach on their religious affairs.

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The author, whofe work is now under our confideration, has, with great ability, and with great ingenuity, given us a view of the manners and customs of men, with regard to feveral important particulars, from their rudeft ftate to their highest improvement in civilized fociety. A careful perufal of many valuable historical monuments has furnished him with a variety of facts, and on these he has founded his obfervations.

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It is remarked in the Preface to his book, that man is every where the fame, and has in every age, and in every country, acted upon the fame principles; but that there is notwithstanding an amazing diverfity in the manners of different countries, and even of the fame country at different periods; that it is an useful, as well as an entertaining speculation, to investigate the causes of this diverfity, and to point out what are the peculiar circumftances which occafion the behaviour of different nations, and what it is that leads men, who, in every age, are guided by the fame univerfal principles, to exert them in fo many various fhapes, and to adopt fuch oppofite laws and customs.

Mr. Millar divides his book into five chapters; the titles of thefe are as follow. 1. Of the Rank and Condition of Women in different Ages. 2. Of the Jurifdiction of a Father over his Children. 3. Of the Authority of a Chief over an extenfive Society, and the Advancement of a People in Civilization and Refinement. Chap. 5. Of the Condition of Servants in different Parts of the World.

With regard to all thefe fubjects, the ingenious author confiders what have been the ideas of men in different ages; what particular customs and ufages have prevailed, what may have been the causes of thefe various customs and ufages, and what leads men to a gradual change of manners, and to advance by one ftep to another, from a state of rudeness and barbarity to a state of civilization and refinement.

In his Preface, the learned and ingenious author prefents us with a general view of the nature and intention of his work; and likewife, gives a fuccin&t enumeration of the several particulars of which he proposes to treat.

In the first chapter, he confiders the origin of marriage, and the chief regulations which have taken place with regard to it. He obferves, that in rude and early ages, the paffions of fex never arofe to a very great height; that among the men there is no predilection of one woman above another, and that the women, in general, are treated with no sort of refpect, but are in most cases reduced under that authority which the strong are able to exercise over the weak. The different

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causes of this are pointed out, and the whole is illuftrated by a great variety of very curious facts from authors who have written at different times, and who have given accounts of countries the most distant and remote from each other.

Having confidered the ftate of the women in a fimple and barbarous age, when men live chiefly by hunting and fifhing; Mr. Millar proceeds to examine in what way it is improved by the gradual advancement of fociety in civilization and opu lence. He obferves, that the invention of taming and pafturing of cattle, produces many important regulations in the manners of a barbarous people; that wherever a man is regularly fupplied with food, and is provided with the neceffaries of life, he naturally aims at an improvement in his manner of living; and that, having obtained the gratifications most effential to his fuftenance, he is led to the purfuit of others which may render his fituation more eafy and comfortable; that among these the enjoyments which are derived from the intercourfe of the fexes claim a principal share, and become an object of attention; and hence the different arts and occupations, which are fuited to the female character, are raised in the eftimation of men, and have an influence in procuring refpect to the fair sex, and in promoting their rank and confequence. The introduction of wealth, and in particular the 'acquifition of landed property for the purpofe of agriculture, it is farther obferved, by giving birth to a distinction of ranks, by occafioning a rivalfhip and an oppofition of intereft between different families, has a natural tendency to interrupt the free intercourfe of the fexes, and this by rendering it difficult for the men to obtain the gratification of their wishes, and by heightening the paffion, increases the refpe&t which they pay to the fair fex, and leads to a higher degree of delicacy and refinement.

These obfervations are illuftrated at great length, and a variety of facts are stated in fupport of them.

Upon this part of his subject, our author is naturally led to confider the causes of the high notions of military honour, and the romantic love and gallantry which diftinguished what are ufually called the ages of chivalry. In order to give our readers a specimen of the author's manner of writing, we fhall 'transcribe what he fays upon this head.

The acquifition of extenfive, property in land, fays he, the jea loufy arifing from the diftinction of ranks, and the animofities and feuds which are apt to be produced by the neighbourhood of great independent families, appear to have been attended with much more remarkable confequences among thofe barbarous nations who, about the fifth century, invaded the Roman empire,

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and afterwards fettled in the different provinces which they had conquered.

As thofe nations were small, and as they acquired an extensive territory, the several tribes or families of which they were com→ pofed fpread themselves over the country, and were permitted to Occupy very large eftates. Particular chieftains or heads of families became great and powerful in proportion to their wealth, which enabled them to maintain a numerous train of dependents and followers. Being neither acquainted with arts and civilization, nor reduced under fubjection to any regular government, they lived in the conftant exercise of thofe mutual depredations and hoftilities which are natural to independent tribes of barbarians, and which might be expected from the vaft opulence and ambition of neighbouring proprietors. In this fituation they remained, with little variation, near a thousand years; during which the fame causes continued to operate in forming the character and manners of the people, and gave rise to a fet of cuftoms and inftitutions of which we have no example in any other age or

country.

The high notions of military honour, and the romantic love and galantry by which those nations were fo much distinguished, appear to have been equally derived from those particular cir.

cumstances.

The men of that age being almoft continually employed in war, were led to acquire fuch habits as rendered them in a great measure infenfible to danger, and capable of fupporting the fatigue and hardships to which they were fo frequently expofed. In their various enterprizes they had often occafion to display their strength or their valour, and to vie with each other in the performance of thofe military exploits which were admired and applauded by their companions. To gain a character in this refpect was therefore the aim of every individual; and, among perfons who afpired to fuperior rank and influence, was even preferred to the profpect of enriching themselves with plunder. They fought merely to establish a reputation in arms, and affected to look upon every inferior confideration as mean and ignoble. They difdained to practise unfair means in order to gain a victory, or to infult and opprefs an enemy whom they had fubdued. According to these notions of honour they regulated their whole manner of fighting; and laid down certain rules and maxims by which the gentry were directed in all their military tranfactions, and from which they were never allowed to deviate without bringing an indelible stain upon their character.

As the attention of those nations was fo generally turned to the military profeffion, it was natural that even in times of peace their fports and amufements fhould be fuch as had a relation to that employment, and tended to improve their warlike accomplishments. Those who belonged to different tribes of families were difpofed to boast of their prowess; and, when not engaged in actual hoftilities, were accuftomed to challenge one another to contend in exercifes, by which they might difplay their fuperior skill, their valour, and their activity. Hence the origin of joufts and tournaments; thofe images of war, which were frequently exhibited by men of rank and diftinction, and which tended ftill farther to improve thofe nice punctilios of behaviour that were commonly practifed by the military people in every contest ór quartel in which they liad occafion to be engaged.

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From this prevailing spirit of the times, the art of war be came the study of every one who was defirous of maintaining the character of a gentleman. The youth were early initiated in the profeffion of arms, and ferved a fort of apprenticeship under perfons of rank and experience. The young 'quire became in reality the fervant of that leader to whom he had attached himself, and whofe virtues were fet before him as the model which he propofed to imitate. He was taught to perform with eafe and dexterity thofe exercifes which were either ornamental or useful, and at the fame time he endeavoured to acquire thofe talents and accomplishments which were thought fuitable to his profeffion. He was taught to look upon it as his duty to check the infolent, to reftrain the oppreffor, to protect the weak and defenceless; to behave with franknefs and humanity even to an enemy, with modefty and politenefs to all. According to the proficiency which he had made, he was proportionably advanced in rank and character, and was honoured with new titles and marks of distinction, till at length he arrived at the dignity of knighthood; a dignity which even the greatest potentates were ambitious of acquiring, as it was fuppofed to diftinguish a person who had obtained the most complete military education, and who had attained to a high degree of eminence in those particular qualities which were then univerfally admired and refpected.

"The fituation of mankind in those periods had also a manifest tendency to heighten and improve the paffion between the fexes. It was not to be expected that those opulent chiefs, who were fo often at variance, and who maintained a conftant oppofition to each other, would allow any fort of familiarity to take place between the members of their refpective families. Retired in their

own caftles, and furrounded by their numerous vaffals, they looked upon their neighbours either as inferior to them in rank, or as enemies, against whom they were obliged to be constantly upon their guard. They behaved to each other with that ceremonious civility which the laws of chivalry required; but at the fame time with that referve and caution which a regard to their own fafety made it neceffary for them to obferve. The young knight as he marched to the tournament faw at a distance the daughter of the chieftain by whom the fhow was exhibited; and it was even with difficulty that he could obtain accefs to her, in order to declare the fentiments with which the had infpired him. He was entertained by her relations with that cold respect which demonftrated their unwillingness to contract an alliance with him. The lady herself was taught to affume the pride of her family, and to think that no person was worthyof her affection who did not poffefs the moft exalted rank and character. To have given way to a fudden inclination would have difgraced her for ever in the opinion of all her kindred; and it was only by a long course of attention, and' of the most refpectful fervice, that the lover could hope for any favour from his mistress.

The barbarous ftate of the country at that time, and the inju ries to which the inhabitants, especially thofe of the weaker fex, were frequently expofed, gave ample scope for the display of mili tary talents; and the knight who had nothing to do at home was encouraged to wander from place to place, and from one court to another, in queft of adventures; in which he endeavoured to advance reputation in arms, and to recommend himself to the fair of whom he was enamoured, by fighting with every person

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