necessity of using digraphs to represent simple sounds. Six simple sounds are thus represented by digraphs; namely sh zh, th th, ng, and ch, as heard in the words shine, azure, thick, thine, sing, chest. The five vowel signs are manifestly insufficient to represent thirteen sounds. Double vowel symbols and digraphs must make up the deficiency. Hence the multiplicity of expedients employed to represent the vowel sounds, and hence, also, from the multitude and confusion of our orthographical expedients, the reproach which we have had to bear from foreigners, in regard to our-otherwise expressive, and, notwithstanding the clusters of articulations to the eye-musical language. 1 The first vowel è is represented by thirteen symbols or combinations of them, namely, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 sented by sixteen symbols or combinations of them, the third by eleven, the fourth by fourteen, the fifth by three, the sixth by one, the seventh by four, the eighth by six, the ninth by twelve, the tenth by ten, the eleventh by eight, the twelfth by twelve, the thirteenth by thirteen; the first diphthong by eleven, the second by three, and the third by four. 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 12 13 14 15 The articulations are similarly represented, though not quite to the same extent. The first articulation k is represented by fifteen symbols or combinations, namely, c, k, q, cc, ch, gh, ke, kh, cqu, que, cch, qu, cq, lk, ck, which are heard or found in the words, con, kill, quit, account, character, hough, lake, khan, lacquer, pique, Bacchic, quay, acquire, five symbolic characters; the eighteenth, or walk. The second, or g, is represented by f, by nine; the thirteenth, or n, by nine; and so on. Thus the twenty-three elementary articulations are represented by 155 symbols or combinations of symbols; and the vowel sounds, by 142 signs. thirteen simple, and the three compound A. C. W. The Inquirer. QUESTIONS REQUIRING ANSWERS. 231. Could any of your fair readers furnish, through the medium of your magazine, a course of reading for a young lady desirous of extending her acquaintance with all the various branches of knowledge, now considered as component parts of what is called a fashionable or liberal education.-GERTY. 232 Can any one give me a succinct explanation of the acoustical and anatomical character of the falsetto voice in male singers; or, refer me to any work which treats of the subject, and accounts for the production of these tones, which are generally about an octave higher than the natural range voice? What variation is there in the condition of the vocal organs in the two cases, and why are women and children unable to produce falsetto tones, and thus raise the practical vocal scale an octave higher?-Vox. tion on the undermentioned may perhaps prove useful to others as well as nryself. Required:-The composition of the crimson and bright green with which both fixed pieces and rocket stars are sometimes so beautifully ornamented. Also, Feu gregois (Ruggieri). An answer to these, especially the two first items, will very much oblige-R. J. H., Hirael, Bangor. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS. 182. Friction with Iron and Wood.-"Jas. G. G.," on the authority of farmers, states that a cart with wooden axles goes much easier over newly-disturbed soil than one having iron axles, the latter having a tendency to slide along the ground; and he wishes to know the reason. It is evident that on soft or newly-disturbed soil the wheels of a very heavily laden cart will sink deep, so as to render the cart immovable, or to cause 233. Being anxious, if possible, to become a it to act very much like a plough; hence a railproficient in the art of Pyrotechny-theoretically, way carriage generally ploughs up the soil a short if not practically; and, owing to my residing in distance, and then becomes firmly imbedded in a locality remote from where the art is to any the ground, when accidentally thrown off the extent cultivated (and therefore bereft of the ad-rails. The case of a cart only moderately laden vantage of a personal consultation with any one who is acquainted with it), I am induced to apply to some of your correspondents, whose informa will exhibit the same phenomena in a modified degree; the loose soil will clog the action of the wheels so as to prevent them rotating, but the weight of the cart not being sufficient to sink them | In the same way, there is a mean sidereal day deep, they will slide along the surface. Whatever tends to give the wheel freer motion round its axles will assist in counteracting this result,-in other words, the sliding of the wheels will be diminished by diminishing the friction of the axles. The statement of" Jas. G. G.," therefore, is explained at once, if we find that the friction of a wooden axle is less than that of an iron one; and the following comparisons (taken from the article on mechanics in the "Encyclopædia Britannica," vol. xiv., p. 413) prove this to be the fact. 1 286 -H. M. M. 183. Dialling.-J. B. says, "I find, in a work on dialling, that on fixing a dial it should be placed 5m. 57s. too slow by the clock on the 1st of August;" and he wishes to know whether the dial" will be too slow at noon," for (he says)" if so, of course the sun cannot be plain south, and at its highest point at noon.' Our friend should beware of the words, "of course;" they contain an immense amount of deception and heresy. We will endeavour to point out the source of his of error. Suppose his dial has been fixed for him by a practical diallist, and that it is within sight of Greenwich Observatory. On August 1st, 1854, he will find that when the falling of the ball at the top of the Observatory indicates precise noon, his dial will be 6m. 3s. too slow: in like manner on August 2nd he will find his dial 6m. too slow when noon is indicated from the Observatory. Let us call this time, given by the Observatory chronometers, ordinary time; and that given by the sun dial, apparent solar time. J. B., I hope, will now perceive that there are two species of time, and consequently two noons: at ordinary noon the sun is not direct south, nor at its highest point; at apparent solar noon it is so. J.B.'s difficulty, therefore, was a confounding of these different species of time. From the examples given, he will perceive that from apparent solar noon, August 1st, to apparent solar noon on August 2nd, will give an apparent solar day of 23h. 59m. 57s. only; in the same way, by consulting an astronomical almanack, he will find that on December 21st to 22nd we shall have an apparent solar day of 24h. 30m. We see, then, that solar dasy, or the times between the successive arrivals of the sun upon the same meridian, are of unequal length; they are called, sometimes, true days, and sometimes apparent days, because marked by real phenomena. On the other hand, what we have called an ordinary (i. e., twentyhours by the clock) day is called by astronomers a mean solar day, being the mean of true or apparent solar days, and determined therefore by no outward phenomena, but simply by calculation. and an apparent sidereal day; a mean lunar day and an apparent lunar day; the two apparent days being the actual intervals between any two successive appearances of the same star or of the moon upon a given meridian, and the two mean days being the calculated average of such apparent days. The relative length of these mean days is as follows:Mean solar day Mean sidereal day Mean lunar day 24h. 23h. 56m. 4.09s. 24h. 54m. The fluctuations between mean and apparent sidereal time are so small as to be almost inappreciable, amounting only to 2-3s. in nineteen years; 23h. 56m 4:09s., therefore, may be taken as the period in which the earth makes a complete revolution on its axis. The question arises, then,-How is it that the sun's apparent motion is not only not the same with that of the stars, but is not even uniform? The full reply to this question is little less than a complete treatise on Mathematical Astronomy. If J. B. wishes to solve the whole question, he must go through a course of mathematical training, and then enter upon the thorough study of astronomy. Here it must suffice to say, that the varying position of the sun with regard to the earth, as the latter moves in its elliptic orbit, is the chief cause of the apparent unequal motion of the sun. In conclusion, we may mention that, in consequence of atmospheric refraction, the sun dial only points out apparent time exactly at noon (i.e., true or apparent noon), the dial being fast before and slow after noon.-H. M. M. 181. The Effect of the Earth's Orbit on its Temperature.-The earth's orbit being elliptical, A. M. A. supposes that the southern hemisphere, having its summer when the earth is nearest to the sun, and its winter when the earth is furthest from the sun, will experience greater degrees of heat and cold than the northern hemisphere. This is not the case: the few following words of Sir John Herschel will show why,-"The elliptic form of the earth's orbit has a very trifling share in producing the variation of temperature corresponding to the difference of the seasons... Heat, like light, being equally dispersed from the sun in all directions, and being spread over the surface of a sphere continually enlarging as we recede from the centre, must, of course, diminish in intensity according to the inverse proportion of the surface of the sphere over which it is spread; that is, in the inverse proportion of the square of the distance. But we have seen (art. 293), that this is also the proportion in which the angular velocity of the earth about the sun varies. Hence it appears that the momentary supply of heat received by the earth from the sun varies in the exact proportion of the angular velocity, i. e., the momentary increase of longitude: and from this it follows that equal amounts of heat are received from the sun in passing over equal angles round it, in whatever part of the ellipse those angles may be situated." It will want a little geometrical and algebraical knowledge fully to comprehend the above reasoning; but there is no possibility of understanding anything of as tronomy without such knowledge. The local Herschel's "Astronomy" (Cabinet Cyclopadia), pp. 197-8. and geographical characteristics of the different parts or the earth, however, have so great an effect, that places in the same latitude often have most opposite climates. The isothermal lines, or lines of equal temperature, first traced out by Humboldt from meteorological observation,deviate very widely from the parallels of latitude. Thus, "the isothermal line of temperature, 54° 4', in France, in longitude 0° 37' east, passes through latitude 45° 46' north; but in China, in longitude 116° 27′ east, passes near Pekin in latitude 39° 54′ north." The mean temperature of the old continent, in latitudes 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°, is 70° 52′ (Fahrenheit), 63° 14′, 50° 89′, 40° 64'; while that of the new continent in the same latitudes, is respectively 66° 92′, 54°50′,37° 94′, 23° 74'.-H.M.M. 193. The Cromwell Family; a History.-In the number of the British Controversialist for October last, we asked certain questions relating to Oliver Cromwell, and not having received a reply, we took the liberty of making other inquiries on the subject. Although the results are not new, we proceed to lay them before our readers, so far as applicable to the Cromwell family, in order to afford in one view a history of that family down to the present time. Among the various works which we have consulted, we are indebted to Noble's "History of the Protectorate House," an old but well-known book; and to a "Biography of the Protector," by the Rev. Dr. Cromwell, published in 1822; a very accurate and interesting production, which we should be glad to see reprinted by some enterprising publisher, in a cheap form. work assigned to him with extreme rigour; and Hebart remarks, that some of the religious houses were saved from immediate destruction only by paying large sums to Cromwell, for his own benefit. In his last days, he was rewarded for his successful measures in procuring from parlia ment a jointure for the queen, and in vesting the property of the Knights Hospitallers in the crown, with the earldom of Essex. But, alas! for this favourite of an arbitrary sovereign; he now suddenly fell from the climax he had reached. The Popish party, led by Gardiner, had been gathering strength in the council; and this seems to have been the chief cause of Cromwell's ruin. It has been generally ascribed altogether to his having induced Henry, who had been two years a widower, into an alliance with Ann of Cleves, the daughter of one of the princes of the German confederacy; a marriage which, although considered by Cromwell as a clever political scheme to recover his waning influence, did not suit King Henry, who had been deceived by a flattering likeness of the lady which had been shown him. When she landed in England, he was disgusted at her appearance. Henry, who had become bloated and unwieldy by leng indulgence, as may be shown by the portraits of him extant, had wished for a fat wife, and Cromwell had chosen Ann, as both comely and fat; but on seeing her, she was discovered to be much stouter than the king desired! Cromwell, in consequence, displeased the royal tyrant; who, although compelled, when matters had proceeded thus far, to marry Ann of Cleves, soon cleft the The name of Cromwell was derived from that marriage, on becoming enamoured of Catherine of a village, so called. There are seve: al villages Howard. Cromwell was brought to trial; and of that name in England; and it was a common forsaken by Henry-indeed by all, except Cranpractice for landed proprietors to assume the mer-he was speedily condemned and executed. name of their estate, as that of Great Hampden Of his character, Tytler observes-" Uncommon gave name to the celebrated family of Hampden. natural abilities, indefatigable application, a proThe names of villages were often adopted by per- found knowledge of men's weak parts, caution in sons who had sprung from, or were connected concealing, and craft in accomplishing his purwith them. Walter Cromwell, first a blacksmith, poses, a devotion to the will of his sovereign, and and afterwards a brewer, is the first of the name an occasional indifference to the means he emwhom it is necessary to notice. He may be said ployed to gratify it, are traits of character which to be the founder of the family. It is proper to admit of no question." Whether altogether sinmention that the occupation of a brewer was, at cere or not, he was a prime mover in the English that period, one of much greater respectability Reformation. He was Cranmer's friend; a warm than it now is, and therefore the fact of Walter friend of literature, and liberal in his charities. Cromwell having become a brewer proves that he It should be noticed that his subscription appears had risen in the world. He had a son and daughter. to the king's letter in the new edition of the Thomas Cromwell, the son of Walter Cromwell, Bible, commonly called Cranmer's Bible, which had received a good education; and after a variety was printed in the year 1537. He had married of occupations on the Continent, he became a the widow of Thomas Williams, Esq., of an anservant of Cardinal Wolsey, and subsequently of cient Welsh family. His son, Gregory, retained King Henry VIII. He rapidly rose in the favour his father's second title; the first, that of Earl of of that monarch, who conferred a number of Essex, having been attainted, and subsequently offices, and also great wealth, upon him. The conferred on other persons. The title of Lord various transactions in which Thomas Cromwell Cromwell was borne by four other barons, sucwas engaged are well known to the student of cessors to Lord Gregory. Little is known of their English history. He advised and encouraged descendants, the family having long resided in Henry in his defiance of the Papal see, and took Ireland. We may mention that a biographical means to coerce the clergy. He stimulated him drama, giving a faithful but not a poetical account in bis persecution of Sir Thomas More, for of the life of Thomas, Lord Cromwell, and bear refusing to accede to his marriage with Ann Bo-ing that title, has been ascribed to Shakspere; leyn. The king, besides appointing him chan- but although it bore the significant initials, cellor of the exchequer, made him vicar general; W S, and was performed at the theatre in which and thus he was not merely the chief adviser, but the chief instrument, in the suppression of the English monasteries; a step which created much commotion, and led to important results, both political and social. He carried out the the dramatist had a share, there appears to be reason for concluding that he was not the author of it, but that probably some individual had used those initials, in order to obtain for it a factitious popularity. The ancestors of the Protector were a Welsh family of the name of Williams. Morgan Williams, Esq., is the first of them whom we require to refer to. He was a gentleman of Glamorganshire, and was in the employment of King Henry VII., and acquired landed property in England, as factors and hangers-on of noblemen generally do, even at the present day. He married the sister of Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, before mentioned; and that nobleman married the widow of one of the Williams's, as also previously stated. The son and heir of Morgan Williams was patronized and introduced to the court of Henry VIII. by his relation, rose high in the favour of that sovereign, and filled important offices; nor did the sad fate of the Earl of Essex check or alter his fortunes. At this period King Henry, wishing to identify the Welsh with the English, pressed on the former the propriety and convenience of using surnames, instead merely of the addition of the christian name of the father or grandfather to their own christian name by the particle "ap,"-as Richard Ap Williams, i.e., the son of Williams. The Welsh, to a large extent, complied with this request, ceasing the use of the word "ap," or joining the "p" to the father's christian name. Thus, as related by Camden, the names Prichard, Powel, Parry, &c., were made by the addition of the consonant "P," and signify the sons of Richard, Howell, Harry, &c.; and many christian names, as Williams, Lewis, Morgan, became surnames, the "ap" being disused. Sir Richard Williams, on the recommendation of King Henry, given for the reason before mentioned, adopted the name of Cromwell, in honour of his relation, the Earl of Essex. This is the origin of the name Cromwell, in connection with the Protector's family, Sir Richard Williams, alias Cromwell, being his great-grandfather. The brothers of Sir Richard also adopted that name; and till a late period, in deeds and other documents, they described themselves as Williams, alias Cromwell. This Sir Richard was an active agent of his relation, the Earl of Essex, in suppressing the monasteries; and various valuable properties in Huntingdonshire, which had belonged to those institutions, were given to Sir Richard at merely nominal prices. It is generally known that several of the Protector's connections remained true to the cause of Charles I., and were actively engaged on his side in the civil war. Amongst these was the Protector's uncle, a gentleman who possessed large estates in the county of Huntingdon, whom Oliver Cromwell visited twice, and, in the execution of his duty to the Parliament, exacted a supply of horses for his cavalry, and levied a pecuniary fine. We introduce this remark, in order to observe that the descendants of this knight, as well as others of Morgan Williams, either from fear, or because they disliked the name from its associations, resigned the name of Cromwell, and took the real family name of Williams. Of these may be mentioned Henry Cromwell, the Protector's cousin, who, though he affected to support the Commonwealth, voted for the Restoration. He changed his name of Cromwell to Williams, in order to please Charles II., on the Restoration; and he was one of those selected to receive the honour of "Knight of the Royal Oak," an order proposed in commemoration of Charles having been saved in an oak after the battle of Worcester; an order which, however, was not instituted. It is difficult, from these circumstances, to trace the pedigree of the families of Williams to the Earl of Essex: and it is a curious fact that others of the Protector's descendants, who still continued to use the name of Cromwell, infected with the prejudice which long prevailed against his me mory, disliked the name. The Cromwells, who had generally settled in Huntingdonshire, and had become one of the wealthiest families in that county, gradually sunk, and their estates passed into the possession of others. At the time when the Protector was born, the family had become comparatively poor. Robert Cromwell, Esq., his futher, had a small estate near the town of Huntingdon, and was a justice of the peace, and for some time a member of parliament. He married the daughter of William Steward, Esq., who was allied to the royal house of that name. From the minute genealogies which we have seen, the Protector, it thus appears, was a ninth cousin of Charles II. They had three sons, including Oliver Cromwell, the future Protector, and six daughters. Various genealogies are afforded of the descendants of the brothers and sisters of the Protector, the most of whom bore different names from that of Cromwell; but we do not deem it necessary to enter into this matter. Many families of distinction amongst our nobility are in this way allied to the Cromwell family. We have stated that Walter Cromwell was first a blacksmith, and afterwards a brewer. It is curious to notice, that the Protector was lampooned by his enemies, as having been at one time in the same employment; but without any sufficient reason. His father, however, carried on an extensive brewing establishment, and the accounts were regularly inspected by Oliver Cromwell's careful and worthy mother. The cavaliers were in the habit of indulging in lampoons, scurrilous prints, and drinking songs, having reference to their opponents, a fact which significantly illustrates the loose morality of their party. We beg to quote a stanza or two from one of those songs, in allusion to the Protector's having, as was insinuated, been for a time a brewer. The song seems a specimen of vinegar, not good ale: A brewer may be a parliament man, "A brewer may do what he will; Which nobody can deny." The chorus, "Which nobody can deny," was a prevalent one at that time. The last stanza refers to an absurd story that Oliver had sold his soul to the devil; and some zealous royalist even pretended that he had seen the contract. The Protector died in the midst of a "war of ele inents;" and even Lord Clarendon supposes that the high wind was sent by the arch-fiend for Noll: his friends suggested, however, that it was intended to convey him to heaven. their habiliments of words, though the cut of the latter be something clownish; but euphonistic The Protector married Eliza, daughter of Sir nonsense will soon tire and disgust all hearers or James Bourchier, of Felstead, in Essex. She is readers of intelligence. The cultivation of the represented by two or three writers as controlling thinking faculty-the hard-earned, determined state affairs, and stimulating her husband's am- habit of thinking what is worth saying or writing bition. But this was not true. The royalists-is one of the highest and noblest objects of charged her with gallantry, and with a love for ambition; mere facility in saying or writing what liquor; but though little is known of her, there we happen to think-the learning to embalm, and is no doubt that she was an excellent individual, paint, and to clothe with all the outward semwell versed in the mysteries of household affairs, blance of life and beauty the shrivelled mummies although remarkably plain in personal appear- which inhabit our mental Golgotha is but a sorry ance, so much so as to excite the ridicule of the employment of our time-a gilding of pinchbeck royalists. The court of Cromwell was no place counterfeits, in the hope of passing them off as for the soft endearments of love; and still less solid gold.-B. for the harlotry which disgraced the courts of the two Charleses. Before the Restoration she left Whitehall, and retired into Wales. She afterwards returned to England, and passed the remainder of her life in obscurity, becoming the guest of her son-in-law, Mr. Claypole, afterwards referred to. She survived the Protector seven years. The Protector had a large family. The idea of his having had illegitimate children, as well as the tales of his private illicit amours, we throw completely aside, as not borne out by anything like evidence; and, indeed, as examples of those vile aspersions with which the royalists sought to blacken the character of every member of the opposite parties. Cromwell's family consisted of five sons and four daughters. The eldest born died in infancy; and of the second, who was in the army, there are few or no traces. The latest born son also died in infancy.-T. U. (To be continued.) The "controversy regarding the erection of a statue of Cromwell among those of the kings of England in the new houses of parliament" was decided in the negative, and in harmony with the state and legal chronology, which ignores the existence of the Commonwealth, and dates the year of the Restoration as the twelfth of Charles II. We will yield to none in our enthusiastic admiration of Cromwell; but as he never assumed the regal dignity, though it was expressly offered to him, we cannot but think the decision correct. -H. M. M. 211. Diagrams.-We cannot say "who furnishes the best diagrams and models for illustrating lectures on natural philosophy;" but we can confidently recommend those sold by Messrs. Walton and Maberly, 28, Upper Gower-street, London. They will doubtless forward a catalogue, with list of prices, &c., on application by post.-H. M. M. 223. Works on Astronomy.-Would not Herschel's "Astronomy," published in the "Cabinet Cyclopædia," price 3s. 6d., suit? It describes (with engravings) the principal instruments. A more theoretical and mathematical work is Hymer's "Elements of Astronomy;" but it is not suited to the beginner, and is more expensive,— 14s. We strongly recommend the purchase of the treatise on Optical Instruments," in the "Library of Useful Knowledge," price 1s. 6d.— H. M. M. S. U., who is desirous of getting a good work on Practical Astronomy, with information respecting the use of the Micrometer, &c., will find Dick's Practical Astronomer" to contain what he requires; published by Seeley's, 10s. 6d. In the "Illustrated London Almanack" for this year there is a good description of the Micrometer, with engravings.-GNUOY. 230. Use of Logic.-The passage which "Homunculus" has quoted has been noticed already, and the absurdity of it is too great to waste any further time upon it. But the question which is involved in it is really most important,-What is the use of logic? In answer to this Mr. Macaulay 195. Composition.-"Rus" wants to know how says, "Essay on Lord Bacon," that more and he may learn to write what he thinks rather more he leans to the opinion that the knowthan to think what to write?" Can he not talk, ledge of the theory of logic has no tendency i.e., say what he thinks? We never yet heard of whatever to make men good reasoners;" and we anyone who was unable to utter his thoughts, if have heard people drawing an analogy between he had any; and writing is merely uttering to the uses of logic and grammar, and asserting that the eye, instead of the ear. "Rus" should, as a person may be a correct speaker without therefore, talk with his pen, and his stated object grammar, so he may be a correct reasoner without would be attained. If he means to express a logic. For instance," Not one Londoner in ten desire to obtain a good style, i. e., not only "to thousand can lay down the rules for the proper write what he thinks," but to write it grammatically use of will and shall, yet not one Londoner in a and perspicuously, &c., then he must study million ever misplaces his will an shall." Now, grammar, and spend a portion of his leisure in supposing the truth of this, which in reality we polishing up the native expressions of his deny, let us take some other place; Coventry, thoughts, until, by hard labour, he has gained for example. We find in this town many who such a mastery over language as will enable him to use their wills and shalls incorrectly. Instead, speak (and therefore to write) his thoughts in however, of telling them by word of mouth of good and suitable language. He will find con- their mistake, we give them a grammar, containsiderable benefit, also, from studying the compoing a rule on the subject, so that if they follow sitions of the great masters of style:-Addison, for elegance; Paley, for simplicity; Burke, for gorgeousness; and Macaulay, for finish. But let "Rus" be sure that his thoughts are good, and worth writing. Good thoughts will excuse that rule, they are sure to be free from error. Clearly, then, to previously incorrect speakers a grammar would be useful. So with logic: suppose a person was arguing with another, and he unconsciously inserted in his argument an ambi |