So, now, just to make a short change in the measure, "By the sweet soul of song" I'll esteem thee a treasure, And will meet thee again with the greatest of pleasure, If you'll write what you think in a commonsense way; "For rhyming and chiming turns many heads 'wry—a Must surely come after or else there's an hiaTus; you'll observe I'm obliged to cut dia, Which in Saxon means through, as you know, I dare say. "But now let us come to a serious conclusion, For I fear we're both rhyming in glorious confusion; So at once let us seek out some modest seclusion, To weep for our sins, till with tears we are blind.' "We turned and left the spot; Conclusion. To Pegasus. the world is getting. These editors little think what we poets-I speak it humbly-have to put up with! Now can we feel for that inspired son of Apollo, who, for the sins of human nature in taking down the Crystal Palace, "Drew his mental cambric forth, And wiped a mental tear." (a) "While we censure as critics we feel as men; and could sincerely wish that those whose greatest sin is, perhaps, the venial one of writing bad verses, would regard their failure in this respect as we do, not as faults, but foibles: they may be good and useful members of society without being poets. For who that has a regard for the public, for the literary honour of our country, for the figure we shall one day make among posterity, would not choose to see such humbled as are possessed only of talents that might have made good cobblers, had fortune turned them to trade? The regions of taste can be travelled only by a few, and even those often find indifferent accommodation by the way. Let such as have not got a passport from Nature be content with happiness, and leave the poet the unrivalled possession of his misery, his garret, and his fame. We have of late seen the republic of letters crowded with some, who have no other pretensions to applause but industry, who have no other merit but that of reading many books and making long quotations. These we have heard extolled by sympathetic dunces, and have seen them carry off the rewards of genius; while others, who should have been born in better days, felt all the wants of poverty, and the agonies of contempt." E. B. I must beg to apologise to the readers of the Controversialist for having broken faith with them with regard to the appearance of this Critique in August last, and to assure them that the Alas! we have no tears; "the fountain of our editor is not at all to blame; circumstances over tears is dry." (a)" Punch." * "Soldier, rest, thy warfare's o'er."-L. L. which I had no control have prevented me from reviewing the article, which has been in type ever since July last.-E. B. The Inquirer. QUESTIONS REQUIRING ANSWERS. the third six inches, and the fourth three inches. On the second spindle opposite the twelve-inch pulley on the first is a three-inch, and opposite the three-inch on the first is a twelve-inch. Now it is obvious that these two sets of pullies will work with the same length of driving-band. I want to know what should be the size of two intermediate pullies on the second spindle, to revolve opposite the nine-inch and six-inch on the first spindle, which will work with the same length of band as the other two sets; the band, in all cases, to be crossed. And if by any, and what rule, the required diameters can be ascertained. 201. You will greatly oblige me if you would insert in the British Controversialist the following questions relative to the Oxford University: 1. What premiums are given for classical honours in each examination respectively? 2. What would be the amount of expenditure per annum at one of the best colleges? 3. Is it absolutely necessary to have a tutor to go through the university, and what are the fees which they demand? 4. Are students required to live in their colleges, or may they lodge outside? I trouble you with this because I have no other means of inquiry.-H. C.-F. T. A. 202. Will some mathematical correspondent of the Controversialist kindly give me an answer to the following queries:-There are two spindles revolving parallel to each other, six feet distant between the centres. Upon the first spindle are four pullies, in the following order :--The first is twelve inches in diameter, the second nine inches, ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS. [The questions to which these answers refer will be found in Vol. IV., first series.] 165. The Nature of the Sun's Body.--It is with extreme reluctance that we take up our pen good botanists study the two systems, the Linnæan and the natural; inasmuch as, although the natural system has detected some few errors in the Linnæan, still the latter acts as a safeguard upon the other. It will be here necessary for me to explain the principles and the difference in these two systems of botany. First, the Linnæan in behalf of the position advanced by us in our | century, viz., Humboldt's "Cosmos," containing, article on the above subject in the July number as it does, an embodiment of all that is known of this magazine. In that article we endeavoured concerning the material universe; and sure we to prove theoretically that the sun is neither a are that if they sit down to study it, they will rise body of fire, nor yet a body on fire, but that it is up confirmed that the sun has a luminous atmosan opaque body, surrounded by a luminous atmosphere. We regret that space forbids us to pursue phere. That reluctance is not occasioned by any the subject further.-WALTER. lack of material wherewith to answer the objec- 178. The Classification of Plants.—“ Phonog" tions brought forward by our friend " W. H. T.,' is desirous of gaining such information as will but from a fear that in the field which the "In- enable him to understand and classify the various quirer opens up, such controversies are ungrasses and other botanical specimens, and I take suitable; but we cannot, in justice to ourselves the liberty of offering a few hints on the subject, and what we believe to be truth, allow the article the result of practical experience and hard study. of "W. H. T." to pass without comment. Our I will endeavour to give such information relative friend "W. H. T.," rejecting the theory of the to botany and the study of plants as, I hope, will sun's luminous atmosphere, adopts that of its prove plain and easy, and answer the desired purincandescent state, and bases it upon the shifting pose. It is indispensably necessary for all who of the sun's spots. Rejecting all theories or wish to be able to classify plants to understand hypotheses that may be formed by the fertile imagi- the rudiments of botany; that is to say, the rules nation of the human brain, let us inquire what upon which the science is based, whether accordactual observation has led others to believe of the ing to the Linnæan or the natural system. A sun, and we think that we could not do better thorough knowledge of the rudiments, or first than to make the following extract from Hum- principles, with practice combined, is far better boldt's "Cosmos," which is the highest authority for the beginner, or young student, than plungon such a subject:-"The conjectures," says he, ing into the depths of the science, to be over"gradually adopted in modern astronomy regard-whelmed with theories and technicalities. All ing the physical character of the sun's surface, are based on long and careful observations of the alterations which take place in the self-luminous disc. The order of succession, and the connexion of these alterations (the formation of the sun-spots, the relation of the deep black nuclei to the surrounding ash-grey penumbra) have led to the assumption that the body of the sun itself is almost entirely dark, but surrounded at a considerable distance by a luminous envelope; that funnel-shaped openings are formed in this envelope, in consequence of the passage of currents from below upwards, and that the black nucleus of the spot is a portion of the dark body of the sun which is visible through the opening." Still more clear and decided, however, is the opinion of the late lamented and renowned French savan, Arago, who thus writes in his "Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes pour l'an 1846":"According to the present condition of our astronomical knowledge the sun is composed-1st, of a central sphere, which is nearly dark; 2nd, of a vast stratum of clouds, suspended at a certain distance from the central body, which it surrounds on all sides; 3rd, of a photosphere, or, in other words, a luminous sphere inclosing the cloudy stratum, which in its turn envelopes the dark nucleus. The total eclipse of the 8th of July, 1842, afforded indications of another envelope situated above the photosphere, and formed of dark or faintly illuminated clouds. These clouds of the third solar envelope, apparently situated during the total eclipse on the margin of the sun, or even a little beyond it, gave rise to those singular rose-coloured protuberances, which so powerfully excited the attention of the scientific world in 1842." Our own Sir John Herschel holds the same views, and in order to save further extracts, we would only refer "R. S.," and my friend" W. H. T." to his "Outlines of Astronomy," p. 234, as well as to the contributions by Sir William Herschel to the "Philosophical Transactions," in 1795 and 1801; but should these latter works be beyond the reach of my friends, let me commend to their attention that masterpiece of the scientific literature of the nineteenth the oldest system-is founded upon the sexual, or reproductive organs of plants, upon which is constituted the classes and orders by which they are divided; the stamens, or male organs, constituting the classes, of which there are twenty-four, besides an additional one, which was afterwards added, called Palmæ; the styles, or female organs, constitute the orders,which are neither consecutive nor equal, as some classes contain many more orders than others. This system divides the vegetable kingdom into genera, species, and varieties; as, for example, the twenty-fourth class, Cryptogamia, contains four orders; viz., 1st. Filices (Ferns); 2nd. Musci (Mosses); 3rd. Algæ (Flags or Seaweeds); and, 4th. Fungi (Mushrooms). The first order of this class contains eighteen genera and fifty-four species; the second, twenty-three genera and three hundred and sixtyfive species; the third, twelve genera and two hundred and thirty-nine species; and the fourth contains ten genera and eighty-two species; all of which have varieties innumerable. The natural system of botany is founded on the structure and general character of plants. This system divides the vegetable kingdom into divisions, classes, subdivisions, subclasses, orders, and tribes. The divisions are founded on the elemental structure, which Jussieu has arranged in two grand divisions, viz., Vasculares and Cell lulares. The classes, which are only three in number, are founded on the number of seminaleaves, or the want of them; thus, Acotyledones, without seed-leaves; Monocotyledones, one seedleaf; Dicotyledones, two seed-leaves. The subdivisions-on the calyx or corolla being or not being distinct; subclasses-on the situation of the stamens; orders-on the most prevailing character; and tribes-on near alliances. This is the Jussieuan system, as improved by De Can dolle, but which modern botanists have further improved and divided into the following sections, viz., Amphigens (Algæ, or Fuci, or Seaweeds, and Fresh-water Algæ), Acrogens (Acotyledones), Endogens (Monocotyledones), Exogens (Dicotyledones). In acrogenous plants the stem is simple, unbranched, and increases only at the extremity; in endogenous plants the stem increases internally, and is also unbranched; and in exogenous plants the stem is branched, and increases externally. According to this system of botany the vegetable kingdom may thus be divided into two great divisions, viz., Endogens, vascular, as in the aloe; and Exogens, cellular, as in the beech. I will now inform "Phonog" how he may classify the various species of grass. Presuming, then, that he understands the rudiments of botany, he must first provide himself with a botanical dictionary, a magnifying glass, a small pair of tweezers, and a sharp penknife. He may then proceed with his specimens thus:-First, ascertain the Linnæan class to which one belongs by counting the stamens; and then the Linnæan order, by counting the styles; then, by referring to that class and order in Smith's "Flora Britannica," or any other book written upon the Linnæan system, he will find a description of the generic and specific character of the plant, which, with the aid of the dictionary, he will be able to understand, and thereby determine the generic and specific name of the specimen. Grass belongs to the third class, Triandria, which means three husbands, or stamens, and the orders Monogynia and Digynia, which mean one wife, or style-two wives, or styles. Dr. James Edward Smith, in his "Flora Britannica," enumerates thirty-five genera, and one hundred and twenty-six species, besides varieties. In the natural system grass belongs to the order Gramineæ, and the class Monocotyledonæ, and is endogenous or vascular. I should recommend the following works as best adapted for a course of botanical instruction, and the use of young beginners:-For the Linnæan system, an elementary work, with Smith's "Compendium to the Flore Britannicæ," and a botanical dictionary; and, for the natural system, Lindley's "School Botany" and Carpenter's "Vegetable Physiology." Entomology.-One of the best works that I am acquainted with on this science is Westwood's "British Insects," published by Orr and Co. Conchology.-This part of the inquiry I must leave for some one else.G. HASKER, Ball's Pond, Islington. 194. Qualifications requisite for the English Bar.-To become a barrister-at-law," M." must get enrolled as a student in one of the inns of court, and apply, after a certain period, to its principal officers (or benchers) for a call to the bar. As a qualification for the call, he must keep commons for three years (i.e., twelve terms), by dining in the hall of the society at least three times in each term. The society of Lincoln's Inn requires that he should be a member for five years, unless he has taken the degree of Master of Arts, or Bachelor of Law, in the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, or Dublin; but if he apply to be examined in law, and pass a sufficient examination therein, then three years will be enough. I would advise "M." to get the "Law Student's Magazine" for October, 1853, and read the article on the "Education of Law Students." It will cost 1s. 9d., and he can get it by applying to T. Day, 13, Carey-street, Lincoln's Inn, London, or through any bookseller.-R. J. J., Liverpool. The Young Student and Writer's Assistant. 4. which he wishes his exercises to be registered on the wrapper of the magazine, and also state the class and section which he wishes to enter. All letters must be posted within eighteen days of the publication of the exercises which they contain. This section of our magazine was opened with the commencement of Vol. II., in January, 1851. Its object was to afford educational assistance to young people "resolutely determined on selfinstruction and mental improvement." For the 2. first year it embraced only a "Logic Class;" but, such was the interest manifested in it, that, with 1852, we opened classes for grammar and mathe- 3. All exercises must be legibly written on fools. matics, and immediately enrolled nearly three hundred students. Many of these have steadily pursued their labours up to the present time, and others have more recently sought admission to their rank. Notwithstanding the enormous amount of labour which these classes have entailed upon us, we are anxious to continue them, and willing, as our readers will perceive, to increase their number and popularity. We cordially invite the attention of our readers generally to the following outline of our plans for 1854 RULES. 1. Every reader of this magazine wishing to become a student shall, with his first exercise, forward his name and address in full, and also the initials, or nom de plume, under cap or post paper, and on one side only. Each sheet must be headed with the writer's name or cognomen, and each exercise numbered and dated with the heading given in the magazine. 5. The exercises for each class must be forwarded in separate envelopes, and directed thus, with the name of the class distinctly written:The Editors of the British Controversialist, 65, Paternoster Row, London. II. Good, bad, evil, ill, have no comparative or superlative form. Better, best, worse, worst, have, in current English,no positive form. This is also true of more, most; though, as late as the reign of Elizabeth, more had the positive form moe. (See Latham.) Old and late have each two comparatives,-older, elder, and later, latter. Near was originally a comparative form of A. S. neah. Next is the superlative of the same word, with the hard sound of the h slightly changed. Nether has, at present, neither positive nor superlative form. Originally a comparative, it is now used as a positive adjective. Further, former, were originally comparatives of the same word, fore, of which foremost is the superlative form at present in use. The positive form is now obsolete, except when used in combination; as, foreman, forehead, &c. The th occurs in forth. Farther is the comparative form of far. The th is supposed to have been added, through its being confounded with further. Junior Division. In accordance with the rules on the preceding page, perform Exercise No. XII., which will be found in the February number, Vol. IV. p. 78. Senior Division. Supply the appropriate verbs and pronouns. here. com Thou ( ) love thy neighbour as thou ( thyself. The wise and virtuous ( ) generally happy. Neither he nor his brother The art of making clocks and watches ( paratively modern. Geography and chronology ( ) the eyes of history. The general causes of these derangements () those things that weaken the constitution. Fretfulness generally ( from physical causes, and afterwards habitual. Whom did you see this morning? (pron.) who served me yesterday. The parliament ( ) prorogued (pr.) (v.) again in February. At the close of the war the army ( ) disbanded. Peace renders (pr.) services no longer necessary. Either I or my brother( ) church every Sunday. Neither sugar, rice, nor silk ( ) produced in this country: (pr.) may all be obtained from India. Either the Queen or her servants () arrived. Both the mother and her daughters industrious. Neither Jane nor Charlotte idle. The wages of the men ( ) been raised. The study of politics ( ) not always improve a man's fortune or temper. There () ninety head of cattle in the market. Every man ) vanity. Each pupil ( ) the attention of the teacher. Every part of Italy' () cultivated. Either of you () welcome. Who answered your question this morning? () whom you met at my house. Whom do you expect to see this evening? ( ) whom I saw yesterday. Given y+x+ z = 99 (2) to find x, y, z2+x+y=137 (3) z=13.068 27 11; also x+9= 20, and x-9=2. J. T. From close attention to the above it will appear that y exceeds x, and that z exceeds y. The commutation, moreover, is strictly symmetrical, which can only occur when z exceeds y by the same quantity that y exceeds x. Hence, x, y, and z are in arithmetical progression. Let n the common difference, .. (1) x2+x+n+x+2n=x2+2x+3 n=69 (4) and (2) ··. (4)—(3) 2x n+n2-n=30 (6) But (6) 2 n x+n2-n=30 .. 2 n2=8, n2=4, n= √4=2=com. difference. Then (4) x2+2x+3 n-69, or by substitution, x2+2x+6=69 .. x2+2x=63 x2+2x+1=64 x+1=8, or x=7. .. y=7+2 or 9 and z = 7+4=11. Question 75. Set all the numbers down in a row, and find some common measure of them, by which divide the numbers. Again: Find a common measure of their quotients, and so on, until no common measure be found; then the product of all the measures so found will be the greatest common measure required. Dividing by 3) 1962, 2289, 2616, 2943, 3597, 981 weight of ditto =.. units of work = 87113·95 × 80 = 6969116.-Ans. W. D. Question 80. A=30, and r='06, and n =7. Question 82. Let x = the depth of the moat; then 182-x2+ √√232-x2=30 squaring and transposing, 60 √232-x2=1105. Again:Squaring and transposing, x2= .. x = 13.77775 nearly. 27335 =189.82638 and by 109) 654, 763, 872, 981, 1199, 327 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 3 .. 3 × 109327, the greatest common measure. J. S. D. Question 76. Since 327 is the greatest common measure, we cancel it, and the resulting quotients are-6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 3. Divide by 3 and by 2, or by either, all that either or both of these numbers will measure, and the resulting quotients will be1, 7, 4, 3, 11, 1. The product of these and the lower greatest diameter = measures is the multiple required. Again :Let 2 a the excess of the lower interior diameter over the upper, and we get, √232-x2=α = √529-189-82638=18-416 .. 2 a 36.8333 .. lower interior diameter = .. 327 × 3 × 2x1x7x4x3x11x1 = 1,812,888. Question 77. Let x and y equal the respective lengths of the arms of the beam, and W the true weight; then we have, Wy=17x and W x 14 y or x= W y 14 y W 9602 x 7854723824.64 936-8332 x 7854 = 689311.567816 and 723824-64 × 689311·567816 = Then, area of greatest internal circle = 836-8332 x 7854 = 550007.787205 area of the less internal circle = 8002 x 7854 = 502656. and √502656 × 550007-787205-525799 1197 = mean proportional of the areas. .. 70635734407+72382464+ 689311-567816= 2119493.551886 the sum of the greatest frustrum, |