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transient surfaces of things, or is unaccustomed to yield prompt and habitual obedience to the control of reason and will, the character becomes facile, fixity of purpose becomes almost impossible, and good advice no more affects the mind than snow-flakes falling calm the surge-crests of the sea. Consistency and decision of character cannot co-exist with an undisciplined mind. Therefore, the great currents of thought ought to be so effectually brought under the control of the will, and so directed to the fulfilment of the purpose of life, that each several thought, as it infringes on the intellect, may be borne along in the usual direction of our ideas, and made to coincide with the general tendency of our thoughts rather than be permitted to act as disturbing forces capable of turning the current of our lives awry. Let us so regulate our minds that we may be able to associate our ideas with ease and readiness, in that manner which shall be most conducive to the ends in view; and let us avoid all frivolous, chance-joined notions. The true and permanent relations of things yield truth; their incidental connexions are fruitful in little else than error. 5th. The possession of careful, calm, and well-trained reasoning powers. A habit of examining every notion presented to the mind, according to certain clearly-defined and well-ascertained principles, cannot fail to impart a superior accuracy of thought upon the party who has acquired it. "A good logical method directs all our efforts to the right end, and furnishes a compendious and well-contrived mechanism for the attainment of that end. Hence, it abridges labour, and renders an equal amount of exertion more productive." "The unassisted hand, and the understanding left to itself, possesses but little power. Effects are produced by means of instruments and helps, these the understanding requires no less than the hand; and as instruments either promote or regulate the motion of the hand, so those, that are applied to the mind, prompt or protect the understanding.Ӡ

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6th. Moral purity and submission to ethical law. A lofty purpose and a noble destiny are absolutely inconsistent with pruriency or sensualism. The assimilation of human nature to those conceptions which we form of the Divinity is the sublimest destiny of which we can entertain an idea. The entire and complete harmony of the intellectual activities —the moral desires and the corporeal habits—with the moral law of God, seems to us the perfection of humanity.

"Oh! let us keep the soul embalmed and pure
In living virtue."

Let every adverse propensity be kept in check. Let the intellect see to it that no sophism impose on the heart; let the heart warn the intellect against giving credence to principles alien to morality; and let the Will-while wielding an unchallenged sceptre over all purposes, habits, thoughts, desires, and powers-bend in ready submissiveness to the dictates of moral rectitude, revealed in the heart and written in the gospel.

"In this one thing all the discipline

Of manners and of manhood is contained."

N.B. The precepts contained in the foregoing paper are not only to be read but practised, -EDS. B. C.

*G. C. Lewis's "Treatise on the Methods of Observation and Reasoning in Politics," vol. i., p. 4. + Bacon's "Novum Organum," I., Aph. ii.

Religion.

WHICH SYSTEM IS MOST IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE SCRIPTURES, AND PRODUCTIVE OF THE BEST RESULTS-EPISCOPACY, PRESBYTERIANISM,

OR CONGREGATIONALISM?

EPISCOPACY.-ARTICLE I.

"That ancient Fathers thus expound the page
Gives truth the reverend majesty of age;
Confirms its force, by biding every test,
For best authority's next rules are best;
And still the nearer to the spring we go,
More limpid, more unsoiled, the waters flow."
DRYDEN.

WITHOUT the pale of the Established Church of this country, the two religious parties which chiefly claim attention by their numbers, no less than by their proselytizing activity, are the Presbyterians-represented by the Established Church of Scotland, and the large body of English Sectarists, who, though often of widely-differing opinions, are usually, from their mode of worship and self-government, and their common antagonism to the National Church, classed together under the name of Congregationalists. With respect to both of these it may be necessary afterwards to show, by a lengthy examination of their polity, how widely they have departed from the primitive and apostolical mode of worship; at present, however, it may suffice to remark of the former, that the numerous schisms and secessions which have at various times broken out among them,* together with the little progress which their system appears to make beyond those countries to which it is endeared by education, by national antipathies and prejudices, by the force of habit, or by historical and hereditary reminiscences, would lead one to imagine it as not altogether the best form of Church government, even if not injurious to peace and unity. And there are those among the Presbyterians who frankly "acknowledge that the system is worn out, that it has no longer power to produce energetic action, deep thought, or a simple form of society; that it flourishes only while it has something to fight with; that the symptoms which it exhibits in its decrepitude, are the conse

As that in the last century, of the parties called Burghers and Anti-burghers. In 1843, there was a large secession of persons who style themselves," The Free Church of Scotland."

quences of evils and weaknesses which were
concealed in it, when it was in its best
estate; that in that best estate it could not
satisfy the wants of which they are con-
scious."*
On the other hand, it must be
allowed, the Congregationalists have made
great progress in this country, partly owing
to the popular and almost conversational
style of their preachers, and their zeal and
activity in making converts, but partly also
to the very nature of their system. It
appeals largely to the conscious self-import-
ance and vanity of its followers, in the
assertion of Independence: first, in the right
of every congregation to be its own lawgiver,
regardless of all other congregations or asso-
ciations; secondly, in allowing to each member
of a congregation, without distinction of age,
or sex, or mental qualification, equal liberty
to vote, and harangue, and determine on
questions brought for discussion before what
they call "the Church." Hence, in the
election, suppose, of a minister to a Chapel,
as females generally form the most numerous
portion of every congregation, as well as of
that part of it usually termed Church-mem-
bers, and as the male portion are often also
very illiterate, there is reason to fear that
personal attractions or sectarian prejudices
may sometimes have more influence with the
electors than moral or mental qualifications.
Possessing also no universally recognised
formularies of belief or practice, their minis-
ters may, of course, teach what they please,
according to the ignorance or prejudices of
their auditory. And personal experience

*Maurice's" Kingdom of Christ," vol. i., 160, 1. + The National Church would probably be much strengthened if laymen were allowed more voice in the direction of her affairs. They would then feel more of interest in, and affection for her. See Hare's" Means of Unity," note J., 144-154; R. W. Evans's" Ministry of the Body," chap. xii. and xiii., on "the Visibility of the Church;" also, Guizot, "Histoire de la Civilisation en Europe," p. 164, &c. (Paris: Didier.)

Some, however, recognise a much mutilated version of the 39 articles. The Baptists have, at

66

leads me to a conviction of the truth of the objection so often made against them, that their teaching is frequently of a merely negative character. They feel more and more," says Mr. Maurice, "that they exist to oppose and destroy certain institutions, which they find established about them. If we look at the sects separately, we find that they are confessedly not spiritual bodies; only bodies professing to include within them a certain number of spiritual individuals. We find new congregations arising out of the old, protesting that these have become earthly and corrupt, that the only hope of a pure Church is in fresh division and secession. We find the members of the old societies denouncing these endeavours after an ideal perfection, and maintaining that experience has always confuted them. We find accounts given by their own members of proceedings resorted to in the election and deposition of ministers, and the formation of congregations, which are, to say the least, what are commonly called secular. We find these sects engaged in angry controversies with each other."* Could unity of faith or practice, under such circumstances, ever exist? "Let the endless divisions," says a Presbyterian divine, "and sub-divisions of small parties among the Independents and Baptists, created by separation, decide. The divisions among the English Independents in the time of the Commonwealth, and the numerous sects, particularly among the Baptists, at the present day, testify to the same unhappy tendency." One of the principal points in which both the Kirk and Nonconformists differ from the English Church is their rejection of Episcopacy; the advocate of which, in a discussion on the merit of the three rival systems, is at liberty, besides examining the constitution of the other, to refer Episcopal regimen to, and consider it as a feature of, the Communion to which he belongs. This being granted, I shall, as far as the nature and requisitions of the discussion will admit, act for the present on the defensive, and proceed to examine the claims of Episcopacy, as a member of that church which, more truly than any other, I believe to be "built upon the foundation of the

various times, put forth professions of faith. See Crosby's "History of the Baptists," vol. i., app. 4, vol. iv., app. 1.

"Kingdom of Christ," vol. i., 161.

Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner-stone."

The following are the propositions which, after careful and anxious deliberation on the subject, I believe may be honestly predicated of Episcopacy, and which I shall endeavour, to the best of my ability, to establish: That it is of Apostolical and Scriptural origin; That it is the most efficient and useful form of Church government.

In the New Testament and early Christian writers we find three distinct orders of ministers constantly referred to-episcopi, presbyteri, diaconi-corresponding to the High Priests, Priests, and Levites, under the Jewish dispensation.* The exact meaning of these three terms, which are not always uniformly rendered in the English version, will be of little consequence, if we can prove that there was, from the foundation of the Christian Church, a class of men corresponding to our Bishops, properly inducted into their office, superior to, and exercising a general superintendence over, the other two; since among the Congregationalists and Presbyterians there is no such order. Now, there can be but little doubt that the Bishops, or episcopi, were considered by the early Christians as the immediate successors and representatives of the Apostles.† And although St. Paul has been alleged to have used the terms "episcopos" and "presbuteros" indifferently, thus proving their identity,‡ yet from a comparison of various passages in his Epistles, it clearly appears that although Bishops were addressed sometimes as Presbyters or Elders, on account of their age or standing in the Church, yet that the term "elder" was applied to many who were not, and were never called "episcopi," or Bishops. Or, if we reject this hypothesis, and allow the perfect identity of the terms episcopos and presbuteros, we must then have recourse to the supposition that an

*Acts i. 20, vi. 1-5. 1 Tim. iii. 2. 2 Tim. i. 6, 14, and ii. 2. Titus i. 5, 7. 1 Tim. iii. 8-13. James v. 14. S. Ignat. ad Trall. iii. ad Magnes. 7. S. Iren. iii. 3, &c. Tertull. de Proscr. Hæret., 32, &c., &c.

+Wordsworth, "Theophilus Anglicanus," 88, &c. Bishop Pearson's Minor Works, by Churton, vol. i. 283-6. Hooker ii. 336. Grotius, iv. 272. Maurice's "Kingdom," &c., ii. 187, 8, 9.

Acts xx. 17 and 28. Cf. Hooker ii. 340. "Omnis episcopus presbyter, non tamen omnis presbyter episcopus."-S. Hil. in Ep. i.,

ad Tim. 3.

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order of men superior to both these is recog- especially of ordaining bishops, priests, or nised in scripture, an order corresponding to deacons. "Nulli unquam presbytero," says the Apostles, and receiving from them, and Bishop Pearson, in his masterly argument transmitting to others, Apostolic functions. on this subject, "qua presbytero, concessa For Timothy was evidently one of a class est potestas ordinandi diaconum, aut presbysuperior to presbyters in general, and in terum, aut episcopum. Nulli regendi presthat, his higher capacity, was admonished byteros, aut per se excommunicandi Christiby St. Paul to honour the " Elders" who anos. Sed episcopis, quatenus episcopi sunt laboured well in the word and doctrine; to ordinati, hæc potestas omnino est concessa.”* admit no man hastily to the ministry; not Wherefore, collecting into one focus the to rebuke an elder, nor receive an accusation scattered rays of light afforded by the against one but before two or three witnesses; scriptures on this point, we may at least clearly indicating his pre-eminence as insti- safely affirm, with Dr. Short, even of the tutor, censor, and judge.* Titus, likewise, Apostolic age, that "if we suppose by way of who is addressed as "Episcopus," had power hypothesis that there were bishops, priests, to appoint elders and determine on questions and deacons, we shall find no statements left unsettled (eiπоvтa) by the Apostle.† which cannot easily be reconciled with this Accordingly," says Dr. Bloomfield, in a supposition." That the office thus early note on this passage, "the Presbyterians are instituted was universally adopted and conobliged to understand this appointing of tinued to exist, we have the evidence of an Paul's interposing his influence with the antagonist:-"The advantages of this Episcongregations to procure the election of these copal form of government," says the historian persons as presbyters; than which, a harsher Gibbon, "which appears to have been introor more factitious gloss was surely never duced before the end of the first century, promulged even by the Socinians." Timo- were so obvious and so important for the thy and Titus, then, on this last hypothesis, future greatness, as well as the present peace should be called Apostles, as should their of Christianity, that it was adopted without successors in all ages down to the present. delay by all the societies which were already But this name, we know, came to be dis- scattered over the empire, had acquired in a tinctly applied to the Twelve who had been very early period the sanction of antiquity, commissioned by our Lord himself, with only and is still revered by the most powerful three exceptions, which prove, per se, that churches, both of the East and of the West, the apostolate was transmissible; while the as a primitive and even as a divine establishother, episcopi, was in like manner restricted, ment." It is further worthy of remark, in honoris gratia, to their successors in the answer to an objection sometimes made, that Apostolic office; and so, although it might it is in the highest degree improbable this have originally designated those who were pre-eminence was the offspring of selfish and set over single churches, yet very shortly, ambitious motives, or that the light of scripeven in Apostolic times, applied exclusively ture could have been so early clouded by to those who had the care of many churches." interested and disingenuous interpreta"Thus, then, while the scriptural names have for good reasons been changed from 1, apostles, 2, elders and bishops, 3, deacons to 1, bishops, 2, priests, and 3, deacons the scriptural fact of the three orders, with their scriptural functions, has remained unchanged."+

If we reject both these hypotheses as untenable, I do not see how we are to explain the fact that we nowhere find the powers above referred to attributed to presbyters,

* 1 Tim. iii. 1, and v. 22, also 1, 17. and 19. Titus i. 5, 6, 7. Note by Peile, iii. 198. Neander's "Church History," vol. i. p. 256. Note by English Editor.

tions." Had such been the case, had the objects of a man's heart been influence and power, it might have been more safely and certainly attained by continuing a heathen. Of such motives, surely, those must be acquitted who, in those early times, chose to

* Minor Works, by Churton, vol. i., p. 274, &c. The whole of Determinationes I. II., deserve careful study in connexion with this subject.

+"Decline and Fall," &c.,vol. ii., p. 52 (Bohn's edition). See also Capefigue," Histoire de France au Moyen Age," vol. i., p. 10, &c. Hooker, vol. ii., p. 329. Maurice, "Kingdom of Christ," vol. ii., 140-1-2.

Alford, "Greek Testament," vol. ii., note on Acts xx. 17.

Church, judging it a fit and needful policy, did agree to receive it for a custom; no doubt but being established by them on whom the Holy Ghost was poured in so abundant measure for the ordering of Christ's Church, it had been either Divine appointment beforehand, or Divine approbation afterwards, and is in that respect to be acknowledged the ordinance of God."

ally themselves with the despised and down- | men, or else they, together with the whole trodden Christians;* especially when we consider that to be in any way eminent among them, was to court danger, often to challenge, as it were, an excruciating death. The persecutions fell chiefly upon the bishops, and the punishment of death was frequently reserved for them alone. It has already been observed that Episcopal regimen obtained very soon in the entire Christian world. So much was this the case that that was not reckoned a church at all which had no bishop. "Ecclesia est in Episcopo," the bishop constitutes the church, was an ancient Christian maxim, of almost universal acceptation. Hence, although at the very first, ere the Church had assumed, as a distinct spiritual constitution, a clearly defined form and outline, there may have been equality among presbyters, yet all alike were subject to the Apostles, who possessed episcopal authority over them, and afterwards transferred it to others; the alleged cause being those strifes and contentions "for remedy whereof," continues the judicious Hooker, "whether the Apostles alone did conclude of such a regi

* See the opinions of the heathen, as expressed by their mouthpiece, Cæcilius, in the Octavius of Minucius Felix (ed. Holden, p. 65 to 79).

+ R. W. Evans's "Biography of the Early Church," 1st series, pp. 20, 59, 86, 153, 267, &c. 2nd series, pp. 80, 81, 221, &c. Jeremie's "History of the Church," pp. 18, 24, 25, 31, 69, 70. Neander, vol. i., p. 185, or any early Church historian. Paley's "Evidences," part i., chap. 1-5.

But space forbids my entering now upon the second part of my proposition, viz., the superior utility and efficiency of Episcopacy, the consideration of which must be deferred to another number; meanwhile, I request my readers' attention, in conclusion, to the following summary of the argument by the learned Dr. Isaac Barrow: "How can we conceive that all the best monuments of antiquity down from the beginning (the Acts, the Epistles, the Histories, the Commentaries, the writings of all sorts coming from the blessed martyrs and most holy confessors of our faith) should conspire to abuse us: the which do speak nothing but Bishops; long catalogues and rows of Bishops succeeding in this and that city; Bishops contesting for the faith against Pagan idolaters and heretical corrupters of Christian doctrine; Bishops here teaching and planting our religion by their labours, their sufferings, and watering it with their blood."

F. J. L., B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

PRESBYTERIANISM.-ARTICLE I.

WHATEVER may be our station or profession, we are each interested in the settlement of this question-in ascertaining the purest and most efficient form of church government -the one of all others the most likely to foster in the hearts of our people the principles of vital religion, and, at the same time, the least susceptible of being made to subserve political purposes.

For the sake of method we will consider the conflicting claims of Congregationalism and the endowed churches, and afterwards discuss the respective merits of the Anglican and the Scottish establishments; in this way we shall be enabled to disembarrass the question in a measure of the perplexity which the stating of it given above may be calculated to introduce.

However much the respective writers may now be able to control the feelings of intense partizanship which the discussion of this question is calculated to excite, time was when the differences were sufficient to embroil the nation in civil war. We have at length, by dint of experience, arrived at the conclusion that such was rather an untoward mode of argumentation, and have abandoned it for the war of controversy-a more polite and rational mode of correcting errors of opinion, a mode of warfare which we hope to see rage with peculiar energy in the pages of this serial.

The question of Church and State Alliance is one upon which, at the time of the Reformation, there was almost no dissent; nearly all the great names in the ecclesiastical

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