SMELLING-SALTS. THE Compound known familiarly by the name of volatile or smelling-salts, is designated in chemical language carbonate of ammonia.

Ammonia belongs to a class of bodies termed alkaline, and it is further distinguished from others of the same class by its volatility*; hence it is denominated the volatile alkali. The purest and most simple form in which ammonia can be prepared is that of an aëriform, that is, a gaseous † body; exhibiting properties common to several of the gases, being transparent, colourless, and elastic, but easily known from all others by the peculiar pungency of its odour. Ammoniacal gas is extremely acrid, destroying the life of any animal that is compelled to breathe it. Its valuable qualities as a refreshing and agreeable stimulant, can be rendered available only when it is diluted with considerable quantities of atmospheric air.

Ammonia enters readily into combination with a variety of other bodies, constituting substances of great importance in certain manufacturing processes. Its affinity for water is, however, among the most remarkable of its habitudes; that fluid being capable of absorbing 780 times its own bulk of ammoniacal gas; the volume of the liquid augmenting by the process in the proportions of six to ten.

Ammonia can be obtained from each department of creation, the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal. In former times, that is, until within the last 120 years, it was manufactured exclusively in Egypt, from soot collected after burning the dung of camels and other animals, which in that country is dried and used by the common people as fuel. The product of this simple process was identical with that known in the present day as a salt of a tough texture, called sal ammoniac; the chemical name for it being muriate of ammonia. At a later period a variety of materials have been employed for the manufacture of ammonia in Europe, as well as in other parts of the world. Among these we may particularly enumerate almost every kind of putrid animal matter; the bones, hoofs, and horns of animals; woollen rags, soot, and pounded coal. Since gas-lighting has been so extensively diffused, the ordinary methods for obtaining ammonia have been in a great measure superseded. In the manufacture of coal gas ammonia is formed in considerable quantities, which, uniting with the water separated from the coal in distillation, constitutes that disagreeable, and, as it was for some time considered, useless, product, now known by the name of ammoniacal liquor.

Among the great variety of transformations effected by chemical art, perhaps there are none more astonishing to an unpractised observer than some of those of which ammonia is susceptible; and of this the refuse liquor of gas-works affords ample proof. Holding in solution the greater portion of the impurities generated along with the gas, the principal of which are sulphur and ammonia, this liquid emits one of the most offensive odours with which we are acquainted. Being mixed, however, with sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) in certain proportions, and the mixture evaporated, a crystallized salt is obtained, which is entirely destitute of odour; this is called sulphate of ammonia. If a process similar

Volatility is a term derived from a Latin word which signifies to fly. As applied to inorganic substances, it denotes a property by which they are speedily dissipated or evaporated among the particles of the surrounding air.

We shall soon have occasion in the series of papers on " Experimental Science," to describe at some length the constitution and general character of gases.

to that just mentioned be adopted, muriatic acid (spirit of salt) being substituted for sulphuric, the product will be muriate of ammonia (sal ammoniac,) and that is the most useful form in which ammonia, as an article of commerce, can be prepared. This salt is, like the former, wholly without any kind of odour. It now remains for us to say something of those preparations of ammonia which are used chiefly on account of the agreeable odour by which they are distinguished. And first of all we may illustrate, by the following simple experiment, the way in which the carbonate is formed;—that which constitutes the base of the common smelling salts. Procure (say) half an ounce of muriate of ammonia (sal ammoniac,) and an ounce of fresh-burnt lime. Reduce these dissimilar materials to a fine powder; then mix them in a saucer or on a piece of paper, and ammonia will be immediately set at liberty; although previously to their being placed in contact, not the slightest trace of its characteristic odour could be detected. Chemical action takes place between the salt of ammonia and the lime, producing carbonate of ammonia; the latter compound being exceedingly volatile, whilst each of the two former, in its separate state, exhibits qualities exactly the reverse. If quick-lime be not at hand, common chalk (carbonate of lime) might be substituted for it; but in that case it will be necessary to heat the mixture. This can be done on the point of a knife, over the flame of a lamp or candle, when ammonia will be disengaged, as in the former instance. The method we have just mentioned approaches very closely to that adopted in the preparation of carbonate of ammonia in the large way. This is termed sublimation, and consists in mixing one part of muriate of ammonia with two parts of chalk, in a proper vessel: on applying heat, the volatile portion is disengaged, and collected in a separate vessel. Carbonate of ammonia when used as smelling-salts, is generally flavoured with a little of the essential oil of lavender, bergamot, or some other agreeable perfume.

Spirit of hartshorn is the name given to ammonia obtained from that material. When properly prepared, it is considered as somewhat more pleasant to the smell than common ammonia. It derives its peculiar odour from the oil which is contained in the horn.

Liquid ammonia, commonly so called, (but known also by the names Spirit of Hartshorn, and Sal Volatile,) is water impregnated with ammoniacal gas, from which the latter has a constant tendency to escape, when the liquid is exposed to the atmosphere. Hence the necessity of keeping it in closely stopped bottles. The same precaution should also be observed R. R. in reference to carbonate of ammonia.

LIBRARIES are the wardrobes of literature, whence men, properly informed, might bring forth something for ornament, much for curiosity, and more for use.

-G. DYER.

THE HAW OF THE EYE OF A HORSE.

THIS is not like the membrana nictitans of a bird, but it is a cartilage covered convexly by the membrana conjunctiva; there is appended to it a mass of fat, and next to the fat is the retractor muscle: whenever the eye is excited, there mass of fat is compressed, and by the compression of this is an action of this muscle; the eye-ball is retracted, the the haw, as it is termed, passes over the eye, so that you never see any thing like dirt, or an extraneous body in the eye of the horse, unless a bit of grass gets entangled there. But in the most dry road a horse never suffers from dust, as his rider does, and it is owing to this provision of nature, a third eye-lid as it were, which runs over the eye. At the moment the eye is turned inward, the haw passes over the eye, and having a glandular secretion, it removes whatever is offensive to the inner corner of the eye when it is conveyed out. SIR CHARLES BELL.

THE SAILOR'S EVENING SONG. LONG the sun hath gone to rest, Dimm'd is now the deepening west; And the sky hath lost the hue

That the rich clouds o'er it threw :
Lonely on the pale-blue sky
Gleam faint streaks of crimson dye,
Gloriously the evening star
Looks upon us from afar;

Aid us, o'er the changeful deep,
God of Power;

Bless the sailor's ocean-sleep,

At midnight's hour.

On the stilly twilight air

We would breathe our solemn prayer,"Bless the dear ones of our home,

Guide us through the wild wave's foam,
To the light of those dear eyes,
Where our hearts' best treasure lies,
To the love in one fond breast,
That unchanging home of rest!'
Hear her, when at even-tide,

She kneels to pray,

That God would bless, defend, and guide,
Those far away!"

Now the moon hath touch'd the sea,
And the waves, all tremblingly,

Throw towards Heaven their silvery spray,
Happy in the gladdening ray:
Thus, Redeemer, let thy love
Shine upon us from above;

Touch'd by Thee, our hearts will rise,
Grateful t'wards the glowing skies;
Guard us, shield us, Mighty Lord,
Thou dost not sleep;

Still the tempest with thy word,

Rule the deep!

CHARITY is an universal duty, which it is in every man's power sometimes to practise; since every degree of assistance given to another, upon proper motives, is an act of charity; and there is scarcely any man in such a state of imbecility, as that he may not, on some occasions, benefit his neighbour. He that cannot relieve the poor, may instruct the ignorant; and he that cannot attend the sick, may reclaim the vicious. He that can give little assistance himself, may yet perform the duty of charity, by inflaming the ardour of others, and recommending the petitions which he cannot grant, to those who have more to bestow. The widow that shall give her mite to the treasury, the poor man who shall bring to the thirsty a cup of cold water, shall not lose their reward.-DR. JOHNSON.

THERE IS but one pursuit in life which it is in the power of all to follow, and of all to attain. It is subject to no disappointments, since he that perseveres, makes every difficulty an advancement, and every contest a victory; and this is the pursuit of virtue. Sincerely to aspire after virtue, is to gain her, and zealously to labour after her wages, is to receive them. Those that seek her early, will find her before it is late; her reward also is with her, and she will come quickly. For the breast of a good man is a little heaven commencing on earth, where the Deity sits enthroned with unrivalled influence, every subjugated passion, like "the wind and storm, fulfilling his word."

THE arms by which the ill dispositions of the world are to be combated, and the qualities by which it is to be reconciled to us, and we reconciled to it, are moderation, gentleness, a little indulgence to others, and a great deal of distrust of ourselves, which are not qualities of a mean spirit, as some may possibly think them, but, virtues of a great and noble kind, and such as dignify our nature, as much as they contribute to our repose and fortune; for nothing can be so unworthy of a well-composed soul, as to pass away life in bickerings and litigations, in snarling and scuffling with every one about us. We must be at peace with our species, if not for their sakes, yet very much for our own.-BURKE,

THE DROPPING-WELL, KNARESBOROUGH,

AND

ST. ROBERT'S CHAPEL AND CAVE. THE Dropping-Well of Knaresborough*, in Yorkshire, is situated on the south-western bank of the river Nid, amidst some of the most romantic scenery in England. The walks on this side of the river are through woods hanging over the water, with beautiful views through the trees of the lofty cliffs, the town and the castle. The remarkable spring represented in the engraving, and which, from its being in the neighbourhood of Harrogate, is much resorted to by visiters, rises at the foot of a limestone rock. After running about twenty yards towards the river, it spreads itself over the top of a crag, about thirty feet high, from whence it falls in a shower, dropping perpendicularly very fast, and making a pleasing sound, thus gratifying the ear as well as the eye. The water, the dis

charge of which is reckoned at about twenty gallons a minute, is very cold, and has a petrifying quality, being impregnated with spar and other earthy matter. It soon incrusts every thing on which it falls; and visiters may be supplied with petrified wood, eggs, birds' nests, and even wigs. This interesting object, and the peculiarities which have rendered it famous, did not escape the notice of our great antiquary Leland, who travelled about England in 1536, and who says:-" On the further ripe (bank) of Nid, as I came, is a well of a wonderful nature called the Dropping Well, for out of the great rocks by it, distilleth water continually into it. This water is cold, and of such a nature that what thing soever falleth out of the rocks into this pit, or is cast in, or groweth about the rocks, and is touched of this water, groweth into stone; or else some sand or other fine ground that is about the rocks cometh down with the continual dropping of the things in the rocks, and cleaveth on such things as it taketh, and giveth it by continuance the shape of a stone."

Near this spot, according to tradition, and the wonderful" histories" sold there, was born the most notorious of all witches, Mother Shipton; and certainly a more bold and singular scene could hardly have been fixed upon by the lovers of the marvellous for such an event.

Further on, at the foot of a range of precipices, is St. Robert's Chapel, with a neat arched and ribbed roof, and a window and gothic door, all cut out of

the rock.

On one side are four hideous faces; in front is an altar: and niches, in which probably were once images, are to be seen on two of the sides. Close to the door, on the outside of this narrow cell, is cut a tremendous figure in the act of drawing a Sword, possibly designed for a gigantic apparition; for it appears that St. Robert, who was a hermit living in the reign of King John, underwent great persecution from William de Estoteville; the latter, however, terrified by a spectre of enormous size and horrible aspect, which continued to trouble him, bestowed on Robert, by way of expiation, a grant of all the lands between this cell and Grimbald crag-stone.

About a mile distant from the chapel is the Cave of the saint, which is stated to have been his usual residence. It has for an entrance a small square door, and extends about fifteen feet within. This place is awfully memorable as the scene of a barbarous murder, in the year 1745. Daniel Clark, with one Richard Houseman, and the infamous Eugene Aram, schoolmaster of Knaresborough, a man of great talents, had joined in a plan of robbing many

For an account of Knaresborough, see Saturday Magazine, Vol. IV., p. 25.

His end was

Foul deeds will rise,

Though all the earth o'erwhelm them, to men's eyes. A labourer, while digging in a quarry, for stone to supply a lime-kiln, near Knaresborough, struck upon a human skeleton. The minds of the people were aroused; many of them who remembered Clark, and could not account for his entire disappearance, fancied the skeleton might have been his. The coroner was called in; and the wife of Aram, who had been deserted by her husband, and had occasionally dropped some dark hints upon the subject, was examined. Her evidence led to the apprehension of Houseman, who betrayed great confusion before the magistrate, frequently changing colour; and, taking up one of the bones, he exclaimed, evidently off his guard; "This is no more Dan Clark's bone than it is mine!" This produced a further and closer inquiry, which ended in Houseman's full confession, that Clark had been murdered by Eugene Aram, and that the body was buried in St. Robert's Cave: he added that the head lay to the right in the turn at the entrance of the cave; and Clark's skeleton was accordingly found there in exactly the posture described. Aram was seized at Lynn, and, together with Houseman, brought to trial at York Castle, on the 3rd of August, 1759. The latter, having been arraigned and acquitted, became evidence against Aram, who delivered a most ingenious and artful defence, abounding in antiquarian lore and general learning, but still more marked with cunning. This curious production, together with a memoir of the murderer, is to be found in Kippis's Biographia Britannica, where he appears in company much too good for him, although the writer of his life does not endeavour to give a false gloss to the subject by making a vile felon interesting. He was convicted, and soon after

It appears that the dreadful act was perpetrated during a course of close and laborious study, which he persevered in after its commission, even up to the time of his detection. He applied himself to poetry, history, botany, and antiquities, including heraldry; became acquainted with Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic; he also investigated the Celtic, which, on comparison with the sacred and learned languages, he said he found so much allied to them, that he had begun to form a Comparative Lexicon; when, suddenly, he discovered to his horror, that, like the wealth mentioned by the wise man, the "riches" of human knowledge "profit not in the day of wrath!" In him we see an instance of an excellent head joined with shocking depravity of conduct; of the wisdom of the serpent without the harmlessness of the dove: and, from his fate, many may learn the need there is of guarding all the avenues of the heart against the temptations of UNLAWFUL GAIN. They may bear in mind the indignant, but, from what followed, awful and instructive, question of Hazael, which he put to the prophet, when little dreaming of the tremendous inroads of vice upon himself: "What! is thy servant A DOG, that he should do this great thing?"

THE only things in which we can be said to have any property, are our actions. Our thoughts may be bad, yet produce no poison; they may be good, yet produce no fruit; our riches may be taken from us by misfortune, our reputation by malice, our spirits by calamity, our health by disease, our friends by death; but our actions must follow us beyond the grave; with respect to them alone, we cannot say that we shall carry nothing with us when we die, neither that we shall go naked out of the world. These are the only title deeds of which we cannot be disinherited; they will have their full weight in the balance value will be confirmed and established by those two sure of eternity, when every thing else is as nothing; and their and sateless destroyers of all other earthly things, TIME and DEATH.