revolt and subdue their oppressors; but it is a proof how far the policy of tyranny had succeeded in crushing the native spirit of freedom. On some occasions, however, when the state was in extreme danger, some of the slaves were armed in defence of their masters and themselves, and were successful. Some efforts were made by the slaves in different places, when opportunity presented, or some insufferable oppression roused them, to recover their liberty, sometimes almost to the utter subversion of the country, and at others to the destruction of the slaves. In Attica, not less than a million of slaves perished in the attempt. Some

times, in war, the slaves deserted to the enemy, hoping, in some degree, to better their condition, which could scarcely be rendered worse. If taken, they were made to pay dearly for their desire of freedom, being bound fast to a wheel, or a pillar, and unmercifully beaten with whips, sometimes even to death. It was customary, also, by way of punishment, to brand or mutilate slaves; sometimes the part offending, as the hand for theft, or the tongue for offensive speaking; but, generally, upon the forehead, where it was most visible. Sometimes they were thus branded, not as a punishment for crime, but merely as a mark to distinguish them, in case they should desert their masters. Working in mills was a common punishment for slaves. This labour was very fatiguing; the present easy methods of grinding were unknown, and the grain was beaten to meal between two heavy stones worked with the hand. This was, no doubt, usually performed by slaves; but, in an ordinary way, lightened by a frequent change of

hands. The punishment, in all probability, consisted in being kept constantly to this excessive toil, and other cruelties were practised upon them to render it the more intolerable.

The slaves at Athens were treated with more humanity than in most other places. If grievously oppressed, they were allowed to flee for sanctuary to the Temple of Theseus, whence to force them was an act of sacrilege. If they had been barbarously treated, they might commence a suit against their masters; and, if it appeared that the complaint was reasonable and just, the master was obliged to sell his slave, and give him the chance of finding a better master. If injured by other persons, not their masters, slaves were allowed to proceed by a course of law. They were also allowed more freedom in conversation among themselves, and permitted to enjoy many of the ordinary pleasures of life; and, moreover, were solaced with the hope of one day regaining their liberty. They were permitted to acquire property and hold estates, only paying to their masters a small annual tribute; and if, by their industry and frugality, they acquired a sufficient sum to purchase their ransom, their masters had no power to hinder them from so doing. In some instances, the fidelity and diligence of the slave was rewarded by the generosity of the master in the free bestowment of liberty; and, on several occasions, when slaves by their courage and constancy rendered essential service to the state, they were uniformly rewarded with liberty, and generally advanced to considerable dignity and reputation; though such as obtained their liberty by purchase, or by favour of an indi

vidual, were rarely advanced to the rank of citizens, or, at best, had to endure much dislike and opposition.

Slavery at Carthage.—Carthage was a famous city of antiquity, the capital of Africa Proper, and for many years disputed with Rome the sovereignty of the world. It has been conjectured that the Carthaginians were one of the nations of Canaan, and that they fled at the conquest of Canaan by Joshua, and colonized at Carthage. In process of time they became very powerful, and conquered a great part of Southern Europe, including Spain, where they enriched themselves with the produce of its mines of gold and silver. The labour employed in working these mines was incredible. The veins of metal rarely appeared on the surface. They were to be sought for and traced through frightful depths, where often floods of water impeded the progress of the miners, and seemed to defeat all future pursuit ; but avarice is not easily disheartened, especially when the toil and suffering to be endured in pursuit of its golden idol can be imposed on others. Numberless multitudes of slaves perished in these mines, which were dug to enrich their masters. Upwards of 40,000 were constantly employed: they were treated with the utmost barbarity; compelled, by heavy stripes, to labour, and allowed no respite day or night.

In most barbarous nations, the wretched slaves and their offspring were taken as substitutes in the idolatrous and cruel rites of their worship. This has already been alluded to among the customs of Sparta (p. 30). The Carthaginians worshipped Saturn, or Moloch, a frightful brazen image, with its hands turned downwards over a fiery furnace. On stated occasions, and on particular

B

emergencies of war, pestilence, or other calamity, a great number of children were sacrificed to the idol, being placed on its hands, and immediately rolling into the furnace at its feet. These were professedly children of noble birth; but it was common to rescue them, and fraudulently to substitute the children of slaves or foreigners. A series of misfortunes led them to condemn themselves for this crime; not the real crime of cruelty and murder, but the imaginary crime of substituting what they supposed the meaner life of slaves, and, to atone for it, they sacrificed in one day two hundred children of the first families in Carthage, and three hundred citizens voluntarily sacrificed themselves. The dark places of the earth are, indeed, the habitations of cruelty! How awful and sickening the scene! But what a reproach to us who worship the only living and true God, yet hesitate to offer to his service the best of our time, talents, and possessions.

SECT. VII.--SLAVERY AMONG THE ROMANS.

Men became slaves among the Romans in each of the ways already specified.

1. By war.—Those who voluntarily surrendered to the victorious arms of Rome retained their freedom; but such as were taken in the field of battle were sold by auction, the slave wearing a crown, and a spear being set up where the crier or auctioneer stood, to intimate that they were obtained by the triumphs of war. They were called servi, to denote their future destiny—that of servitude for the benefit of others; and mancipia, as spoils taken with the hand. Mancipate signifies

to lay the hand upon,—to bring under subjection; emancipate, to remove the hand that held down,— to set free from slavery.

2. As a punishment for crime.—Those who neglected to enrol themselves as subjects of the Roman government, or who refused to enlist in the Roman army, had their goods confiscated, and, after being scourged, were sold beyond the Tiber. When grievous criminals were condemned to the mines, or to fight with wild beasts, or any other extreme punishment, they were first deprived of their privileges as Roman citizens, and termed slaves of punishment; but in case of their escaping with life, they became free men.

3. By sale.—There was a continual market for slaves at Rome, where the sellers brought them from various countries. The seller was bound to promise for the soundness of his slaves, and not to conceal their faults. Hence they were commonly exposed to sale naked, and carried a scroll hanging at their necks, on which their good and bad qualities were specified. If the seller gave a false account, he was bound to make up the loss, or take back the slave. Those whom the seller would not warrant were distinguished by wearing a kind of cap. Foreign slaves had their feet whitened with chalk, and their ears bored. When first brought to the city, they were called novices, new, or inexperienced slaves. Those who had served long were called veterans, a phrase intended by them to express not only long experience and consequent aptitude in business but artfulness—a quality which they justly concluded was likely to be acquired under the oppression of slavery.