does not trouble himself much about charts or log-books, observations or bearings: his vessel is to him as much a yacht as a merchant-vessel, and his voyage as much one of pleasure as one of business. This tendency in the Greek sailors to land, for enjoyment's sake, whenever an opportunity offers, has been humorously alluded to by a modern writer:

OLD ENGLISH NAVIGATORS. WILLOUGHBY, CHANCELOR, AND Burroughs.

II.

WHEN Richard Chancelor parted from his commander he seems to have gone on considerably to the north, for he speaks of having arrived at a place, where was A merchant, who, sailing from Greece to Trieste, perpetual daylight," a continual light and brightness Grew vexed with the crew, and avowedly testy, of the sun, shining clearly upon the great and mighty Because, as he said, being lazy and Greeks, sea." He must, however, have taken an easterly, and They were always for putting in harbours and creeks, then a southern direction, before many days; for he sucAnd instead of conveying him quick with his lading, ceeded without difficulty in reaching Wardhuys, where (As any men would who had due sense of trading,) he waited for a considerable time for his companions; Could never come near a green isle with a spring, But smack they went to it like birds on the wing. after which, disregarding the alarming reports of perils that would beset his farther progress, he pushed on After going to Rhodes and some other islands, Mr. gallantly towards his mysterious destination. The Emerson made a further passage, in a small brig-of-war, adventurers were guided to the entrance of an immense of eighteen guns, which had formerly been employed by bay, which was no other than the White Sea, as yet the Greek merchants to carry wheat to Spain and France, unknown to Western Europe. They espied a little fishbut had afterwards exchanged her grain for guns. Hering-boat, the crew of which, having never seen a vessel cabin was high and roomy, built of unpainted fir, hung with arms and amber pipes, and surrounded by a divan, on which the captain and his second officer were wont to take their coffee and smoke their chibouques. The ship's company were a set of good-humoured but idle fellows; whose time was chiefly spent in sleeping, singing, or playing cards; and they would lie for hours together under the shadow of a sail, laughing and shouting over their favourite game of casino. Navigation appeared to be very little understood by the captain or his officer, for the cruizes of the vessel were such as seldom kept it far distant from land.

By confining our attention, however, exclusively to the smaller maritime enterprises of the inhabitants of these islands, we scarcely do justice to the Greek seamen. Their general merits as mariners will be better understood from the following extract from a writer on this subject:

The Greeks are universally addicted to commerce, and their marine is in many respects highly important. The islanders form the most enterprising portion of the nation, and carry on a petty trade in numberless half-decked boats, with high stems and sterns, and one thick short mast, with a long yard. They perform these voyages even as far as Constantinople and Smyrna, without chart or compass, and merely, as of old, by the observation of coasts and headlands. But they are acquainted with the management of the largest vessels of European construction, and besides navigating the Ottoman navy as seamen, they have large merchant-ships of their own, which trade as far as America and the West Indies, and make an occasional voyage to England. The natives of Hydra particularly, the most expert of the Greek mariners, have accumulated great wealth by their commerce, and have purchased from the Turks the independent election of their own magistrates. The number of Greek mariners actually employed at sea, is supposed to be not less than fifty thousand, and they are considered as capable of being trained to any kind of naval

service.

With certain modifications resulting from the change in the relations between the Greeks and the Turks, the above account would be applicable in our own day.

Ir the stroke of War

Fell certain on the guilty head, none else-
If they that make the cause might taste the effect,
And drink themselves the bitter cup they mix;
Then might the Bard, the Child of Peace, delight
To twine fresh wreaths around the Conqueror's brow;
Or haply strike his high-toned harp, to swell
The trumpet's martial sound, and bid them on
When Justice arms for vengeance; but, alas!
That undistinguishing and deathful storm
Beats heaviest on the exposed and innocent;
And they that stir its fury, while it raves,
Safe and at distance, send their mandates forth
Unto the mortal ministers that wait

of such a comparatively vast size as the Edward Bonadventure, took the alarm and fled at full speed. Chancelor, with his party, pursued and overtook them; whereupon they fell flat on the ground, half dead, crying for mercy. He kindly raised them; and by looks, gestures, and gifts, expressed the most kind intentions. Being then allowed to depart, they reported everywhere "the singular gentlenesse and courtisie of the strangers;" so that the natives came in crowds, and the sailors were well supplied with provisions and everything they wanted.

After inquiring on what part of the world they had been thrown, our navigators found that they were at the extremity of a vast country, but imperfectly known in. Europe by the name of Russia or Muscovy, and then under the absolute rule of a sovereign named Ivan Vasilovitch, who held his court at Moscow, which was 1500 miles distant, and could only be reached by sledges over the snow. Chancelor sought, and obtained, permission to visit the capital. He was favourably received by the commercial intercourse, which has since subsisted with czar, and his able agency laid the foundation of that little interruption between England and Russia.

We are told that the English navigators were astonished at the pomp and magnificence of the Russian court. The czar behaved at first in a reserved and stately manner towards the strangers; but at another interview conversed more familiarly with them. prince called them to his table, to receive each a cup

"The

from his hand to drinke, and took into his hand Master George Killingworthes beard, which reached over the table, and pleasantly delivered it to the metropolitan, who, seeming to bless it, said in Russ, This is God's gift; as indeed at that time it was not only thick, broad, and yellow coulered, but in length five foot and two inches of assize."

In the following spring, Chancelor sailed from Archangel, and arrived safely in England, bringing with him a letter from the czar to Edward VI. This letter expressed a cordial desire to open an intercourse with England, and to grant to the Company of MerchantsAdventurers every privilege necessary to enable them to carry on traffic in his kingdom.

Thus the expedition had failed in its immediate object, besides the disastrous loss of Willoughby and his associates; but the prospect of establishing a trade with an extensive empire served as some compensation. A new charter was granted to the Society of MerchantsAdventurers, who assumed the title of "The Muscovy Company." Chancelor was sent out again, with credentials from Philip and Mary, and commissioned to treat with the czar of Muscovy, respecting the commercial privileges and immunities which his majesty might be pleased to grant to the newly-chartered company. The original object, however, of a passage to India by

the pole, eastward, was still kept in view. The adventurers were instructed not merely to seek for commercial gain, but also to increase their geographical knowledge, and "to use all wayes and meanes possible to learne howe men maye pass from Russia, either by land or by sea, to Cathaia*."

But, before this expedition could produce its effects, another vessel was fitted up in 1556, the Search thrift, and placed under the command of Stephen Burroughs, who, on the first voyage, had acted as master of Chancelor's vessel. The sole and express destination of this vessel was, the eastern passage by the pole to India. There was as much enthusiasm and hope upon this as upon the first occasion. Cabot came down to Gravesend with a large party of ladies and gentlemen; and having first gone on board, and partaken of such cheer as the vessel afforded, invited Burroughs and his company to a splendid banquet at the sign of the Christopher. After dinner, a dance being proposed, the venerable pilot, as Burroughs tells us in his journal, "for very joy that he had to see the towardness of our intended discovery, entered into the dance himselfe, amongst the rest of the young and lusty company."

Burroughs set sail from Gravesend on the 29th of April; but did not arrive at the islands and straits of Waygatz, between Nova Zembla and the continent, before the middle of July. The crew were very much alarmed by the monstrous pieces of ice, which they saw floating about, and often became so entangled with them, that they could with difficulty avoid one mass without striking upon another. At one time a huge whale came so close to the ship, that they might have thrust a sword into him; but the commander, fearing lest the monster should overset the vessel, caused the men to shout with all their might, as Nearchus had done many ages before in the Arabian sea. The like effect was produced in both cases: this mighty animal, which is neither ferocious nor very courageous, plunged into the depths with an astounding noise.

Our navigators here fell in with a Russian sail. From their commander, Loshak, they learnt that the country about there belonged to the wild Samoiedes, who were described as cannibals, and worshippers of idols. Burroughs saw in one place more than three hundred of their idols, of the rudest workmanship ever beheld. They consisted of figures of men, women, and children, badly carved, with the eyes, mouths, and other parts stained with blood. These barbarians had no houses; but lived in tents made of deer-skins. Our navigators in all probability found the inhabitants of the polar islands and of the north of Asia, very similar to the occupants of these regions at the present day.

We have a curious story handed down to us of a scene witnessed by Johnson, one of the companions of Burroughs, among the Samoiedes at the mouth of the Pechora, a river at the north-east of European Russia. It is represented as a scene of magic incantation, performed by one of the great northern wizards, who live by deluding the borderers of the Arctic circle.

The magician first took a great sieve, something like a drum; then he began to sing, as people in England halloo, whoop, and shout after the hounds; to which the people present responded with "Igha, igha, igha!" The conjuror at length fell into convulsions, and dropped down as if dead, though his breathing could still be heard. When Johnson asked the meaning of all this, he was told," Now doth our god tell him what we shall do!" After he had remained thus for a short time, the people began to cry "Aghao, aghao!"-upon which he arose, and again began to sing. Then he took a sword, and thrust it through his body, so that it entered at the breast, and came out at the back. We are told that Johnson saw it go into the shirt before, and issue out at Cathaia, or Cathay, is the name formerly given to China, and the east of Asia in general.

|

the shirt behind; but it does not appear that its actual passage was very narrowly scrutinized, which is quite sufficient to shew that the spectators were imposed upon. The magician then sat down with a vessel of hot water before him, and a line or rope of deer-skin wound round his body; over all of which, as well as himself, a large cloth mantle was spread. The ends of the line being left outside of the mantle, were drawn tight by two men in opposite directions, till something was heard falling into the vessel. Johnson was horrified at being informed that this was the magician's head, shoulder, and left arm, severed from the body by the violent pulling of the rope. When Johnson asked leave to lift the cloak, and view this sad spectacle, he was informed that no one could do so and live. After the multitude had sung and hallooed for some time, the mantle was lifted up, and the conjuror came forth perfectly entire; all the parts cut asunder being understood to have been miraculously replaced. How far soever this gross and obvious imposture succeeded in deluding Johnson, it seems to have had an unlimited effect with the credulous and ignorant natives.

Our sailors had passed fifteen leagues beyond the mouth of the Pechora, and were nearing Nova Zembla, when the advanced season of the year prevented them from penetrating any further. Among other causes are mentioned the hindrance from the north and northeasterly winds, which seemed to the commander more powerful than in any other place; the immense quantity of ice, which seemed likely to be still further accumulated; the nights waxing dark, and winter with all its storms beginning to draw on. On these grounds it was decided to return, and winter at Colmogro; in order to resume their eastward navigation with the ensuing spring: but, in consequence of other employment, this design was not carried into effect, and the vessel returned to England in the succeeding year.

In the mean while Chancelor had proceeded on his mission to Archangel and to Moscow, where affairs had been well and prosperously carried on. The czar, Ivan Vasilovitch, sent back with Chancelor, Osep Nepea Gregorowitch, the regal ambassador and orator, as he was termed, with four ships heavily laden with furs, wax, train-oil, and other Russian commodities, to the value of upwards of 20,000l., which belonged partly to the merchants, and partly to the orator. But the homeward voyage was most calamitous: two of the vessels were wrecked on the coast of Norway; a third reached the Thames; but the Edward Bonadventure, in which were the principal persons of the expedition, was driven by the storm into the bay of Pitsligo, on the north-east of Scotland, where it went entirely to pieces. Chancelor endeavoured, in a very dark night, to convey himself and the ambassador ashore in a boat. This boat was overwhelmed by the tempest, and Chancelor was drowned, together with most of his crew: the ambassador, however, by great good fortune succeeded in reaching the land. He was conducted to London with great pomp, where he was honourably treated by the English government; and the commercial relations of England and Russia were established on a closer and more solid basis.

These polar voyages were now suspended for a while, in consequence of the attention of the Muscovy Company being directed to the establishment of a new mercantile communication with the interior of Asia.

CREDULITY has been defined to be-Belief without reason.
Scepticism is its opposite-Reason without belief.

He who is governed by preconceived opinions, may be compared to a spectator who views the surrounding objects through coloured glasses, each assuming a tinge similar to that of the glass employed.-DR. Paris.

238

run with less friction, last longer, and require less power. The Patent Lubricator has been applied to the wheels of gentlemen's carriages with considerable success: a half a pint of oil will keep the axle well lubricated for a considerable time, and the wheels never require to be taken off for the purpose of greasing.

The mechanical contrivances for the diminution of friction consist either in avoiding the contact of such bodies as produce much friction, or by substituting as much as possible the motion of rolling for that of sliding. Thus, if a heavy load be drawn upon a sledge, the motion is that of sliding which is accompanied by the greatest amount of friction; but if the load be placed upon rollers, the nature of the motion is changed and becomes that in which there is the least amount of friction. Large masses of stone or timber would require an enormous force to move them on a level road, but the motion is easily effected when rollers are put under them. The wheels of carriages may be regarded as rollers which are being continually carried forward with the load. In addition to the friction on the road, wheels have the friction of the axle in the nave; but they do not have to encounter the friction of rollers with the

under surface of the load, nor that of the carriage which bears the load. The advantages of wheel carriages in diminishing friction do not arise, as is sometimes supposed, from the slowness with which the axle moves within the box compared with the rate at which the wheel moves over the road: the amount of friction does not in any case vary considerably with the velocity of the motion. In wheel carriages the roughness of the road is more easily overcome by large wheels than by

small ones.

The former are not so liable to sink into holes as the latter, and in surmounting an obstacle, the load has to be elevated less abruptly. The smaller the rubbing axis of a wheel, the less the friction. Castors

on household furniture act as wheels.

Friction is also diminished when the rubbing surfaces Axles made of steel are made of different materials. may with advantage be made to bear on brass; in small machines, such as time-keepers, the steel axle sometimes plays in agate or diamond cups.

Friction wheels or rollers are sometimes employed to The axle of a wheel, remove the effects of friction.

instead of revolving within a hollow cylinder which is fixed, rests upon the edges of wheels which revolve with it. This is a species of motion in which the friction is of least amount. In Atwood's machine described in Vol. XIII., p. 181, of this work, friction wheels are admirably employed.

SWEET is the voice of well-earned praise
To every virtuous ear;

The inspiring meed of youthful ays,
And e'en to manhood dear.
As opening flowers to sunny skies

Their blooming fragrance bring;
Warm'd by the approval of the wise,
Th' unfolding virtues spring.
Yet oft, with undiscerning mind,
The applause of man is given:
But, O my soul! what joy to find
Thy deeds approved in Heaven.

THE thief who picks our pocket does not so much harm in society, nor occasion so much pain, as they may be charged with, who shock the ear of piety with profaneness, or tear open the wounds of the bleeding heart by forcing upon it some painful recollection.-BEATTIE.

No species of reputation is so cheaply acquired as that derived from death-bed fortitude. When it is fruitless to contend and impossible to fly, little applause is due to that resignation which patiently awaits its doom.-ROSCOE's Lorenzo de Medici.

PALIMPSESTS.

THE term "Palimpsest" has been applied to manuscripts, from which the original writing has been erased, or washed out, and whien have been then written on again. The word is aptly chosen, as it implies, according to its derivation from the Greek, the fact of the material for writing on having been cleansed again.

The material which, from its tenacity and consistency, was best capable of being submitted to this process, was parchment: the reader will find a very interesting article, descriptive of the preparation of this substance, at Vol. XIII., p. 133, of this work.

It seems that the practice of re-cleansing parchment, or removing the first writing, was not confined to the middle or dark ages,-to the inhabitants of the cloisters, but was in vogue even before the Christian era: it was probably resorted to from the time of the first production of parchment itself; for we are told that this material was always a scarce commodity until rather recent times. A preparation for effacing the original writing on parchment was known in the time of Augustus Cæsar; and Cicero, when writing to one of his friends, commends him for having been so economical as to write on a palimpsest, but says that he should like to know what those writings could possibly have been which were considered of less importance than a letter.

The ancients were in the habit of using likewise leaves of writing. or strips of the papyrus plant for the purposes This plant is common in Abyssinia, Egypt, and Syria, and The English is also met with in Calabria and Sicily; it inhabits both stagnant waters and running streams. word "paper," is derived from the name of this plant. The ancients had also a method of cleansing the papyrusleaves of the original writing, though this substance was naturally very delicate and friable.

That parchment was a very costly material in the middle ages may be known from the fact that when Guy, count of Nevers, sent a valuable present of plate to the Chartreux of Paris, the unostentatious monks returned it with a request that he would send them parchment instead.

The scarcity and expense of parchment, therefore, and the demand for the writings of the Fathers and books of devotion in those times, frequently induced the monks to erase or wash out the writings of the classical authors, to make room for those of the Fathers. The original writing upon the parchment could be scratched out, and a peculiar kind of knife belonged to the apparatus of a transcriber: the parchment scratched in this manner was rubbed over with pumice-stone, to render it more fit for writing. The practice of thus removing old writings for the sake of the parchment was so common in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, that when the emperor of Germany empowered the creation of an imperial notary, one of the chief articles of the diploma of this officer was, that he should not use scraped vellum in drawing deeds. The manufacture of parchment has certainly been carried on in all ages; but that of the ancients was distinguished for its beauty, strength, and whiteness; for which reason, in later ages, a palimpsest of the ancient parchment was preferred to all the preparations of the

new.

But, in many cases, the monks were not able to obliterate entirely the ancient writings; and a careful exami mination of these palimpsest manuscripts has led to the discovery of some valuable works and fragments of the classical authors. Among the most important is the treatise of Cicero "on the Republic," which was found in the Vatican Library at Rome by Angelo Mai, in a manuscript which had been re-written with the Commentary of St. Augustin on the Psalms. The Institutions of Gaius, which contained the Roman code of laws at the commencement of the Christian era, were also recovered