P RA the advantage of their visits to our rivers; and even as it is, they appear to be gradually deserting some of the southern rivers of Scotland where the supply was formerly very abundant. regulations as are best adapted to secure the supply of The causes of this unwelcome desertion of their old haunts by the salmon, are still in operation, and it is confidently foretold by experienced anglers, that ere long, many of the once-famed salmon rivers will be destitute of this fish. In noticing the more prominent of these causes, we take the united testimony of Sir Humphry Davy and Sir Walter Scott, in saying that the change produced in the rivers and brooks of England and Scotland during the last twenty years, by the general system of drainage, has been a great cause of the diminution of fish in those streams. The moist, spongy, or peaty, soils which once composed a great part of the high lands of England, and the extensive morasses which covered the southern hills of Scotland, used to receive and retain, like sponges, the quantities of rain which fell upon them, and the moisture soaking from thence by slow degrees into rivulets and streamlets, was gradually transmitted to the main body of the river. Thus the rivers were slower in rising to flood than they are at present, and slower in subsiding from that state; and their full and We must now proceed to describe the various means equable stream allowed the salmon, at almost all times, employed for the capture of salmon, in the different parts to pursue their course towards the upland sources. But of the river, during the legally established season, which, now that the work of drainage has been so extensively in Scotland, extends from the first of February to the carried on, the moisture is no longer retained in the fourteenth of September, Sundays excepted. t same degree by a spongy soil, but being carried off by The stake-net affords the most advantageous means numerous channels to the principal stream, this latter for taking salmon at the mouth of the river. This net becomes suddenly swollen, and rushes onward with a was first introduced on the Solway, about a hundred rapid current which forces the fish into pools and dams, years ago, and was called a "raise" or "rise" net. and in its subsidence, which is also sudden, leaves them first it was nearly in the form of a crescent, and was there, unable to ascend higher, and thus they are taken fastened to two stakes. It rose with the flow of the in great numbers. These remarks apply more especially tide, and the salmon were taken only at the ebb. Imto Scotland, but, in a limited degree, they describe the provements were afterwards made, which rendered it state of English rivers also. There is another way in available during the flood as well as the ebb-tide. When which drainage is supposed to be injurious to the fishing stake-nets became general, they were found to be exceedinterest. The food on which the salmon and other fishingly advantageous in increasing the quantity of fish principally subsist, is lessened in quantity by that cause. Sir Humphry Davy says, I attribute the change of the quantity of flies in rivers to the cultivation of the country. Most of the bogs or marshes which fed many considerable streams are drained; and the consequence is that they are more likely to be affected by severe droughts and great floods, the first killing, and the second washing away, the larvæ and aurelias. In many cases, the system of drainage has been indiscriminately carried on, and its good results, even to the proprietor of the land, are extremely questionable. Judicious persons will, in time, be led to qualify its excess, and this will doubtless improve the state of the rivers, by restoring to them a more equable stream. The other main cause of the deficiency of the salmon arises from moral circumstances, for which it is to be feared there is no remedy. The privilege of fishing for salmon does not necessarily follow the possession of land on one or both banks of a salmon river. The cases are numerous where the right of fishing in any particular part of the stream has been conferred by charters or royal grants on individuals who are neither owners nor occupiers of the land in the vicinity. By whatever means such right has been obtained, each proprietor is anxious to make the most of his part of the river, and is al much interested in the practices of those who occupy the portions above or below him. The proprie tors of the upper part of the river receive great injury if the means employed in the lower fisheries are such as to prevent the ascent of the salmon to them; and the lower proprietors are equally aggrieved if the salmon. are destroyed during the breeding season when they repair to the upper parts of the stream to deposit their spawn. Between the upper and lower proprietors, therefore, there should ever exist a good understanding as to their respective rights, and a careful maintenance of such At taken; and such was the success with which they were used, that as many as five hundred salmon and grilses have been secured in one of them, at the same time. These nets are not adapted for any other situation than the mouths of rivers, and are only used when the tide is always ebbing and flowing, the stakes being firmly driven into the rocky ground on the banks of the river. The nets are fixed between high and low-water mark, and do not interfere with the return of the fish from the upper streams. Salmon fresh from the sea are as often to be found in the shallow as in the deep water, but those which are descending from the spawning ground are weak and out of condition, and always keep the middle of the stream. There is another sort of net used on the coast, or the tideway of a river, but it is nearly superseded by the one just described. It is called a stage-net, and requires the constant attendance of fishermen, on the top of a stage or platform. At a higher portion of the river the coble-net is used with much effect. The fishermen go out in flat-bottomed boats, called cobles, and get their chief supply from the pools of the river, to which the salmon freely resort. In dragging their nets along the bed of the river, or pool, they frequently rake up the spawning-bed, or injure the young fry, so that this mode of fishing is deemed injurious, besides taking the fish in a less perfect manner than by the stake-net. The salmon are frequently bruised in being dragged along in the net, and not being immediately packed in ice, are often inferior in flavour to those procured at the mouth of the stream. Another method of taking salmon on a large scale for public consumption, is by means of an artificial space or dyke in the river, called a cruive. This cruive is formed of stones, projecting in such a manner, that the fish, in ascending the river, are led into them, and inclosed, as it were, in a trap. The cruive is considered as liable to abuse, since it can easily be formed in such a way as to prevent the ascent of the fish towards the stream head. In still-fishing, as it is called, one end of the net is held by a man on the shore, another by a fisherman in his boat. As a fish approaches, it is surrounded by the net and pulled ashore. A variety of other means are employed in the upper portion of the river, some of which can only be practised during flood-time, and others are common in ordinary fishing. We may mention one or two. Burning the water, or leistering, is a common practice. A large number of nets are spread in every direc-in tion in the upper portion of the river, and one or two persons stand in a boat, with leisters in their hands. A third individual stands in the centre of the boat with a torch, generally composed of tarred rags. The moment a fish is discovered within reach he is struck. The halve-net is a net fixed to the end of a pole, fourteen or sixteen feet in length. The fisherman carries the net on his shoulder to the river or frith, and placing it under water, waits the entrance of the fish. Spearing is practised in nearly all our salmon rivers, but, as generally conducted, is considered illegal. The fish are speared late in the evening in their resting places, with a ten-pronged instrument. Within the last fifty years the transmission of salmon to all parts of the country, has been wonderfully facilitated by the plan of packing the fish in boxes with ice, and also by the improved means of conveyance throughout the kingdom. Before that period the supply of salmon in the London market was at all times scanty, and in warm weather had almost wholly ceased. It was packed in straw, and sent chiefly from the different salmon rivers of England. If anything occurred to delay the vessel, the fish was obliged to be boiled and pickled before it was sent off, and a supply of fresh-taken fish was put into the ship as it was on the point of sailing. At the present time, in addition to the advantages above mentioned, we have steamboats regularly arriving from all the great salmon rivers, bringing their cargo with nearly as much certainty and precision as a stage-coach would do, and allowing us to receive salmon in perfection, or rather in good condition, from a distance of five hundred miles. The produce of the fine rivers of Scotland is thus regularly conveyed to our markets, and the supply of salmon sent to London in one year alone (1835), amounted to 42,000 boxes, each box weighing on an average one hundred-weight. Even on a reduced estimate the quantity brought to market that season is said to have been 20,000 tons, or 4,480,000 pounds; which at ten-pence per pound would give 186,6667. The salmon are delivered to commission-agents, who charge five per cent., and take the risk of bad debts. This business is a lucrative one, and is in very few hands. So long as seventy or eighty years ago, the value of salmon fisheries was very great, and in consequence of the great demand for this fish, it has gone on increasing. At the above period, as Pennant informs us, there were forty-one considerable fisheries on the river Tweed alone, extending upwards about fourteen miles from the mouth of the river, which were rented for about 5400l. per annum. The expenses attending the servant's wages, nets, boats, &c., amounted to 5000l. more, which, together made up the sum of 10,400%. Twenty times the sum of fish must have been caught to defray that expense, therefore, the salmon taken in the Tweed at that time must have been about 208,000 in one year. For the seven years preceding 1824, the rental of the Tweed fisheries averaged about 12,000%. One of the fisheries on the river Spey has been let at the enormous sum of 8000l. a year, and the expenses are supposed to have been 40001. more. J We have scarcely mentioned the law respecting weekly close-time on salmon rivers, which forbids all 1. A SHORT ACCOUNT OF GUYANA IN GENERAL. It is curious to observe, on glancing at a map of Asia, Africa, or America, how many spots occur which are possessed, more or less completely, by European nations. Few circumstances are more indicative than this, of the power and civilization of the European states. The greater purity of ideas on matters of religion, the enterprising and industrious habits of the people, and the knowledge of the various arts and sciences diffused among them, all tend to bring about this state of affairs. America once presented features such as these, to a very remarkable extent. Canada was claimed by France; the eastern portion of what now constitutes the United States, was an English colony; the immense country of Brazil was subject to Portugal; while nearly all the remainder of South America, as well as Mexico and Florida, were possessed by Spain. Great changes have, however, occurred in the political condition of these regions. England has lost the United States; Spain has lost her immense possessions; Portugal has lost Brazil; while the possession of Canada has been transferred from France to England. The general effect of these changes has been to render the whole of North America, southward of the great lakes and the river St. Laurence, independent of European control; and likewise the whole of South America, except a small country or region towards the north-east border. The Canadian and Russian territories in North AmeVOL. XVIII. rica, we do not propose to allude to farther here; but we wish to draw the readers attention to the portion of South America just referred to, and which is called Guyana, Guiana, or Guayana; a region of which very little notice has been taken in our works on geography. The upper part of South America is divided into great basins, by the rivers Orinoco and Amazon, both of which flow eastward into the Atlantic; and the name of Guyana used formerly to be given to the whole of the region between these two mighty rivers, a surface of country more than equal to three times that of France. But in recent times the name has been applied to a district not more than one sixth of this extent; Because Brazil on the one hand, and the republic of Venezuela on the other, have appropriated more than five-sixths of the former Guyana. Even in its present limited extent, the boundaries of Guyana are but ill defined; but there seems to have been a sort of agreement to determine the limits by this arrangement:-that all that part of ancient Guyana which is drained by secondary rivers flowing into the Amazons, shall form part of Brazil:-that the portion which is drained by rivers falling into the Orinoco, shall form part of the republic of Venezuela; and that part only whose rivers flow at once into the Atlantic, shall continue to receive the name of Guyana. This limited district has a sea coast about four hundred miles in extent, from the eastern mouth of the Orinoco, to the river Oyapock. 568 Yet this country, limited as it is compared with former times, is divided into three parts, owned respectively by the British, the Dutch, and the French; British Guyana being the most westerly, near the republic of Venezuela; French Guyana the most easterly, near Brazil; and Dutch Guyana between the other two. It is not possible, nor is it indeed of much importance at present, to determine how far inland the territory of Guyana extends; for scarcely an European foot has trodden any parts except those immediately contiguous to the coast. Until the Geographical Society employed Mr. Schomburghk, a few years ago, to explore the inland parts of British Guyana, the authorities knew but little, and attended to but little, except the towns established on the coast for commercial purposes; while the portions of Guyana belonging to the French and the Dutch are still less known. The possessions of the three countries are separated from each other by rivers; and it seems to be understood that Guyana extends to the sources of these rivers, wherever they may be. Beginning from the east, we find French Guyana separated from Brazil by the river Oyapock, the extent of which is but little known. Then follows the river Marony, which serves as a boundary between French and Dutch Guyana: this is a considerable river, rising in the Sierra Acacay, and having, for a considerable distance from its mouth, an average width of a mile and a half. In the middle of the Dutch territory we meet with the river Surinam, which near its mouth, is about a mile in width, and is navigable for vessels of considerable size beyond the town of Paramaribo. On approaching the boundary between the Dutch and British possessions, we meet with the river Courantin, which has been better explored than those hitherto named. It has been ascended to a considerable distance towards its source, to a point where two fine cataracts occur, each nearly one hundred feet in height. As it is more than nine hundred feet wide at this point, the inference is drawn that the source of the river is much farther inland. From the cataracts the river runs north-east; and after presenting several rapids, becomes navigable at a distance of a hundred and fifty miles from the sea. For forty miles from the mouth its width is as much as one mile; near the mouth it is four miles; and at the estuary or actual mouth, ten miles. Farther westward, in the British territory, is the river Demerara, whose length is known to be at least two hundred miles, and is supposed to be much more: as it affords an easy means of transport for goods, there are many settlements on its banks. Lastly, we may mention the river Essequibo, which traverses British Guyana, and which has been ascended to a distance of two hundred and thirty miles from its mouth. During its course it receives the river Rupernoony, more than two hundred miles in length; and afterwards another river, the Siparoony, whose source has not yet been ascertained. On approaching near its mouth, the Essequibo is farther augmented by the waters of the Mazaroony and the Cuyuni, two large rivers which unite about eight miles above their junction with the Essequibo. This last-named river contains, in different parts of its course, numerous rapids, and also many small rocky islands, and banks of mud and sand, which render the navigation somewhat dangerous. From the source of the Rupernoony to the mouth of the Essequibo, is a continuous water communication nearly five hundred miles in length. All these rivers have a course more or less northeast, by which they empty themselves into the Atlantic, and divide Guyana into several sections. The country is farther divided into two sections by a hilly region running nearly parallel to the shore, and at a distance of from forty to seventy miles from it. Northward of this dividing belt is a flat low country, forming that which has alone been attended to by the nations who have established colonies there; while the district south of the mountain belt has been but little explored. The low sea-girt land here alluded to, is nearly on a level with the sea at high water, and requires unremitting attention to the embankments and sluices necessary to keep out the sea. The greatest part of this low plain is covered with a soil of strong blue clay, highly impreg nated with marine and vegetable salt, and with vege table matter in a very divided state. The soil is very fertile, and thereby repays the outlay incurred for embankments and sluices. Other parts of the plain are open savannahs, that is, plains fit for pasturage, but not for farm cultivation; while some few districts distant from the rivers are unfit for cultivation, being without trees or shrubs, and entirely overgrown with fern. The southern boundary of the maritime plain is formed of a range of hills, varying from fifty to two hundred feet in height; and then succeeds a series of more elevated plains, divided at intervals by ridges of hills running nearly parallel with the sea-shore. At different parts of these ridges are insulated hills, as well as elevated terraces, at heights of seven, nine, twelve, and fifteen hundred feet respectively. After passing several of these ranges of hills towards the south, we approach some extensive savannahs covered with grasses and plants; the winding courses of the river alone being marked by a border of trees. In some places the savannahs present a broad belt of good soil, but without any vegetation. At first The general climate of Guyana may be indicated by saying that there are two rainy seasons and two dry seasons. One of the rainy seasons is longer than the other, and begins about the middle of April. the showers come only at intervals; but as the season advances they are more continuous, until at length, in the month of June, the rain pours down in torrents. It then gradually subsides, and ceases altogether by the end of August. Then commences the long dry season, which continues throughout September, October, and November. December and January constitute the short wet season, during which a moderate quantity of rain falls; and lastly, February and March constitute the short dry season. During the long rainy season, the rain often falls for several hours without ceasing; after which the remainder of the day is fine. Other times occur in which a few days will pass over without any rain falling. The heat is not so great as might be supposed from the almost equatorial situation (from about 2° to 8° N. latitude,) on account of the trade winds, which, passing over the whole breadth of the Atlantic from Africa to America, reach the coast of Guyana loaded with mois ture, and the wind and moisture thus render the tem perature of the air more supportable than it would otherwise be. There is likewise an alternation of land and sea-breezes, which, as the sea-breezes are colder and blow in the day, and the land-breezes during the night,-contribute greatly to maintain an equable temperature. The thermometer seldom rises above 90°, or falls below 75°, so that the temperature throughout the whole year is such as we should term "summer heat." Thunder-storms, often violent but seldom very destructive, occur during the rainy seasons; the dreadful hurricanes of the West India islands being wholly unknown here. It has been said that few countries on the surface of the globe can be compared with Guyana for vigour and luxuriance of vegetation, which shows itself especially in the great number of indigenous plants, and the large forest trees, which cover not less than one half of its surface. Many of the trees produce excellent timber; others are used for the making of furniture; such is the mahogany tree; or to furnish log-wood, while others are valuable on account of their fruit. Indian corn and rice are cultivated to such an extent, that three crops of the former, and two of the latter, have been obtained in one year from some fertile pieces of ground. It was observed by Humboldt, and has since been confirmed by others, that wheat and similar grain do not succeed well in Guyana, since the altitude of the ground is too small; an intertropical latitude requiring a considerable elevation for the growth of these productions. The territory of Guyana is inhabited by Europeans, African slaves, and native Americans. The Europeans went into this country as colonists, at different periods in past history; the Africans were, as in other and equally disgraceful instances, kidnapped from their houses and sold into slavery. The European settlers are principally descendants of the original Dutch colonists; the number of British and French being smaller. The native Americans of Guyana are, generally speaking, more civilized than the other aborigines of America. They cultivate Indian corn, Cassava, and some other roots; but they are still attached to a wandering life, and a slight inducement, or sometimes only fancy, leads them to abandon a well-cultivated piece of ground, and to remove to a wilderness, where they undergo much toil in rooting out the forest trees, and in preparing a new piece of ground. Some of these natives work for the European settlers as day-labourers. Their colour varies from that of a Spaniard or Italian, dark copper hue. to a very These details relating to Guyana are to be taken as a whole, without reference to its division among the three European possessions. It was necessary to take this general view of the country, in order to understand the relation between the different Guyanas. But from this point we shall dismiss the Dutch and French settlements, and confine our attention to the British territory, which is indeed the only part of which much is known in this country. We will merely state in conclusion, that Dutch Guyana is frequently called Surinam, the capital being Paramaribo; and that French Guyana is called by them Cayenne, with a capital of the same name. I was a saying of the celebrated Sterne, "that most people have their hobby-horse or amusements;" the literal meaning of which I take to be, that most people have their favorite pursuits or amusements; and so long as these pursuits are compatible with our duty to God as Christians, and mi litate not against the welfare of our fellow-men, so far are they innocent, rational, and profitable. Among all the various amusements which this fascinating world holds out, I think none is more innocent, more rational, or more profitable than the cultivation of flowers: those beautiful gems with which our divine Creator has studded our meadows, and kindly furnished to beautify our = gardens; whose brilliant colours vie with the rainbow, and infinitely surpass the most costly tints, and whose balmy fragrance scents the surrounding atmosphere with perfumes more agreeable than the spices of Arabia! Who can behold their exquisite symmetry; who can admire their diversified yet splendid colours; or, who can feast his senses on the aromatic sweets which emanate from their beautiful blooms, without feeling a sort of sacred pleasure stealing imperceptibly into his very soul, and leading its finest feelings willing captives to their inimitable charms? It is said, and very truly too, that the study of astronomy, that sublime science, which teaches the various revolutions of those spheres which nightly bespangle the nocturnal heavens, is admirably calculated to lead the mind from Nature up to Nature's God. And if the contemplation of those luminaries, placed as they are at such immeasurable distances; and which can act only upon the ocular nerves, has this tendency; how much more ought the beauties of Flora, producing as they do, a threefold evidence on the senses! Yes The blushing tint, the crimson streak, In fact, there is not a blade of grass, or a wild flower that decks our lawns, but which is replete with instruction, and shows forth the handy-work of the Great and glorious Creator of the universe. Not a tree, A plant, a leaf, a blossom, but contains Solomon, the wisest man, was a great admirer of the beauties of the floral kingdom. And our blessed Redeemer expressly commands us to "consider the lilies of the field;" and if, with an example like that of Solomon before us, and after receiving a command from our Saviour himself, we can still remain insensible to their charms-still refuse to contemplate their inimitable beauties, we must lack much of that spirit of refinement which purifies the grossness of depraved human nature, and makes man fit for the society of Heaven. The men Whom nature's works can charm, with God himself And form to his, the relish of their souls.AKENSIDE. Among all the productions of the vegetable kingdom, there is not a single individual but which has its uses; even those very tribes which daily remind us of man's awful fall, and the curse pronounced upon the earth for his sake; have in them properties of peculiar usefulness, and prove beneficial to the wants of man.--God hath made nothing in vain!-some are for use, others for ornament, and not a few, perhaps all, are possessed of medicinal properties. Properties! without which, life itself would be a burden; and which, if utterly deprived of, it would be utterly impossible for man to exist. Since then, there is such innocent amusement, such rational pleasure, and such mental improvement in the cultivation of plants and flowers, and since it is so well calculated to enhance our spiritual interests, and render us more fitting for the society of beings of a higher order than ourselves, and especially for the society of our divine Maker, let me, for one, disdain more ignoble and trifling pursuits, let me fly from the deluded votaries of mere sensual gratifications, and in (Far from the noisy haunts of sordid men,) In these thy lowest works; yet these declare A MIND, by knowing itself, and its own proper powers and virtues, becomes free and independent. It sees its hinderances and obstructions, and finds they are wholly from itself, and from opinions wrong conceived. The more it conquers in this respect, (be it in the least particular,) the more it is its own master, feels its own natural liberty, and congratulates with itself on its own advancement and prosperity.-Shaftesbury. |