therefore, on what other substances they exhibit the effects of heat. Now, sailors tell us that when large quantities of spices are suddenly opened, after having been shut up for some time, there is some danger of fever and inflammation to those who stir them or take them out. An experiment might therefore be made whether such spices and herbs when produced will, like smoke, dry fish and meat hung up over them. Thirty-first negative to twenty-sixth affirmative. There is an acrid effect and a degree of penetration in cold liquids, such as vinegar and oil of vitriol, as well as in warm, such as oil of marjoram and the like. They have, therefore, an equal effect in causing animated substances to smart, and separating and consuming inanimate parts. There is not any negative instance as to this, nor does there exist any animal pain unaccompanied by the sensation of heat. Thirty-second negative to twenty-seventh affirmative. There are many effects common to cold and heat, however, different in their process. For snowballs appear to burn boys' hands after a little time, and cold no less than fire preserves bodies from putrefaction, besides, both heat and cold contract bodies. But it is better to refer these instances and the like to the investigation of cold. 13. In the third place we must exhibit to the understanding the instances in which that nature, which is the object of our inquiries, is present in a greater or less degree, either by comparing its increase and decrease in the same object, or its degree in different objects. For since the form of a thing is its very essence, and the thing only differs from its form as the apparent from the actual object, or the exterior from the interior, or that which is considered with relation to man from that which is considered with relation to the universe; it necessarily follows that no nature can be considered a real form, which does not uniformly diminish and increase with the given nature. We are wont to call this our table of degrees or comparative instances. TABLE OF THE DEGREES OR COMPARATIVE INSTANCES OF HEAT. We will first speak of those bodies which exhibit no degree of heat sensible to the touch, but appear rather to possess a potential heat, or disposition and preparation for it. We will then go on to others, which are actually warm to the touch, and observe the strength and degree of it. 1. There is no known solid or tangible body which is by its own nature originally warm. For neither stone, metal, sulphur, fossils, wood, water, nor dead animal carcasses, are found warm. The warm springs in baths appear to be heated accidentally, by flame, subterraneous fire (such as is thrown up by Etna and many other mountains), or by the contact of certain bodies, as heat is exhibited in the dissolution of iron and tin. The degree of heat therefore in inanimate objects is not sensible to our touch, but they differ in their degrees of cold, for wood and metal are not equally cold. This, however, belongs to the table of degrees of cold. 2. But with regard to potential heat and predisposition to flame, we find many inanimate substances wonderfully adapted to it: as sulphur, naphtha, and saltpetre. 3. Bodies which have previously required heat, as horsedung from the animal, or lime, and perhaps ashes and soot from fire, retain some latent portion of it. Hence distillations and separations of substances are effected by burying them in horse-dung, and heat is excited in lime by sprinkling it with water (as has been before observed). 4. In the vegetable world we know of no plant, nor part of any plant (as the exudations or pith) that is warm to man's touch. Yet (as we have before observed) green weeds grow warm when confined, and some vegetables are warm and others cold to our internal touch, i. e. the palate and stomach, or even after a while to our external skin (as is shown in plasters and ointments). 5. We know of nothing in the various parts of animals, when dead or detached from the rest, that is warm to the touch. For horse-dung itself does not retain its heat, unless it be confined and buried. All dung, however, appears to possess a potential heat, as in manuring fields. So also dead bodies are endued with this latent and potential heat, to such a degree that in cemeteries where people are interred daily, the earth acquires a secret heat which consumes any recently deposited body much sooner than pure earth and they tell you that the people of the east are acquainted with a fine soft cloth, made of the down of birds, which can melt butter wrapt gently up in it by its own warmth. 6. Manures, such as every kind of dung, chalk, sea-sand, salt, and the like, have some disposition towards heat. 7. All putrefaction exhibits some slight degree of heat, though not enough to be perceptible by the touch. For neither the substances, which by putrefaction are converted into animalculæ, as flesh and cheese, nor rotten wood which shines in the dark, are warm to the touch. The heat, however, of putrid substances displays itself occasionally in a disgusting and strong scent. 8. The first degree of heat therefore in substances which are warm to the human touch, appears to be that of animals, and this admits of a great variety of degrees, for the lowest (as in insects) is scarcely perceptible, the highest scarcely equals that of the sun's rays in warm climates and weather, and is not so acute as to be insufferable to the hand. It is said however of Constantius, and some others of a very dry constitution and habit of body, that when attacked with violent fevers, they became so warm as to appear almost to burn the hand applied to them. 9. Animals become more warm by motion and exercise, wine and feasting, venery, burning fevers, and grief. 10. In the paroxysm of intermittent fevers the patients are at first seized with cold and shivering, but soon afterwards become more heated than at first; in burning and pestilential fevers they are hot from the beginning. 11. Let further inquiry be made into the comparative heat of different animals, as fishes, quadrupeds, serpents, birds and also of the different species, as the lion, the kite, or man. For according to the vulgar opinion fishes are the least warm internally, and birds the most; particularly doves, hawks, and ostriches. 12. Let further inquiry be made as to the comparative heat in different parts and limbs of the same animal. For milk, blood, seed, and eggs, are moderately warm, and less hot than the outward flesh of the animal when in motion or agitated. The degree of heat of the brain, stomach, heart, and the rest, has not yet been equally well investigated. 13. All animals are externally cold in winter and cold weather, but are thought to be internally warmer. 14. The heat of the heavenly bodies, even in the warmest climates and seasons, never reaches such a pitch as to light or burn the dryest wood or straw, or even tinder without the aid of burning glasses. It can, however, raise vapour from moist substances. 15. Astronomers tell us that some stars are hotter than others. Mars is considered the warmest after the sun, then Jupiter, then Venus. The moon and, above all, Saturn are considered to be cold. Among the fixed stars, Sirius is thought the warmest, then Cor Leonis, or Regulus, then the lesser dog-star. The sun gives out more heat as it approaches towards the perpendicular or zenith, which may be supposed to be the case with the other planets according to their degree of heat; for instance, that Jupiter gives out more heat when situated beneath Cancer or Leo, than when he is beneath Capricorn and Aquarius. 17. It is to be supposed that the sun and other planets give more heat in perigee, from their approximation to the earth, than when in apogee. But if in any country the sun should be both in its perigee and nearer to the perpendicular at the same time, it must necessarily give out more heat than in a country where it is also in perigee, but situated more obliquely. So that the comparative altitude of the planets should be observed, and their approach to or declination from the perpendicular in different countries. 18. The sun and other planets are thought also to give out more heat in proportion as they are nearer to the larger fixed stars; as when the sun is in Leo he is nearer Čor Leonis, Cauda Leonis, Spica Virginis, Sirius, and the lesser dog-star, than when he is in Cancer, where, however, he approaches nearer to the perpendicular. It is probable also that the quarters of the heavens produce a greater heat (though not perceptibly), in proportion as they are adorned with a greater number of stars, particularly those of the first magnitude. 19. On the whole the heat of the heavenly bodies is augmented in three ways; 1. The approach to the perpendicular; 2. Proximity or their perigee; 3. The conjunction or union of stars. 20. There is a very considerable difference between the degree of heat in animals, and even in the rays of the heavenly bodies (as they reach us), and the heat of the most gentle flame, and even of all ignited substances, nay liquids, or the air itself when unusually heated by fire. For the flame of spirit of wine, though diffused and uncollected, is yet able to set straw, linen, or paper on fire, which animal heat, or that of the sun, will never accomplish without a burning glass. 21. There are however many degrees of strength and weakness in flame and ignited bodies: but no diligent inquiry has been made in this respect, and we must, there * This notion is erroneous, but the sun is in Leo about August, when the earth has become heated by the accumulation of heat after the solstice. The maximum of heat in the day is not at noon but about two o'clock, for the same reason. fore, pass it hastily over. Of all flames that of spirits of wine appears to be the most gentle, except, perhaps, the ignis fatuus, or the flashes from the perspiration of animals. After this we should be inclined to place the flame of light and porous vegetables, such as straw, reeds, and dried leaves; from which the flame of hair or feathers differs but little. Then, perhaps, comes the flame of wood, particularly that which contains but little rosin or pitch, that of small wood, however (such as is usually tied up in faggots), is milder than that of the trunks or roots of trees. This can be easily tried in iron furnaces, where a fire of faggots or branches of trees is of little service. Next follows the flame of oil, tallow, wax, and the like oily and fat substances, which are not very violent. But a most powerful heat is found in pitch and rosin, and a still greater in sulphur, camphire, naphtha, saltpetre, and salts (after they have discharged their crude matter), and in their compounds; as in gunpowder, Greek fire (vulgarly called wild fire), and its varieties, which possess such a stubborn heat as scarcely to be extinguished by water. 22. We consider that the flame which results from some imperfect metals is very strong and active: but on all these points further inquiry should be made. 23. The flame of vivid lightning appears to exceed all the above, so as sometimes to have melted even wrought iron into drops, which the other flames cannot accomplish. 24. In ignited bodies there are different degrees of heat, concerning which also a diligent inquiry has not been made. We consider the faintest heat to be that of tinder, touchwood, and dry rope match, such as is used for discharging cannon. Next follows that of ignited charcoal, or cinders, and even bricks, and the like; but the most violent is that of ignited metals, as iron, copper, and the like. Further inquiry, however, must be made into this also. 25. Some ignited bodies are found to be much warmer than some flames; for instance, red hot iron is much warmer and burns more than the flame of spirits of wine. 26. Some bodies even not ignited, but only heated by the fire, as boiling water, and the air confined in reverberatories, surpass in heat many flames and ignited substances. 27. Motion increases heat, as is shown in the bellows and the blow-pipe, for the harder metals are not dissolved or melted by steady quiet fire, without the aid of the blowpipe. 28. Let an experiment be made with burning glasses; VOL. XIV. I |