QUESTIONS FOR SOLUTION.-VI. 47. A debt of £1000 is to be discharged in five payments, viz., £200 in six months, £200 in eight months, £150 in ten months, £150 in eleven months, and the remainder in twelve months; the creditor, however, would prefer to receive it at one payment. At what time will it become due ? 48. What is the present worth and discount of the above at 5 per cent. per annum? 49. What is the present worth of £60 yearly rent for seven years, allowing 6 per cent. per annum, compound interest, to the purchaser? 50. A can do a piece of work in 35 days, and, with the help of B, in 20 days. In what time will B do it by himself? 51. Reduce 42871428714, &c., to a vulgar frac tion. 52. Standing at some distance from the foot of a hill, I took the elevation of a tower upon it, 26° 45′ and, measuring on level ground 500 links towards the hill, I again took the elevation of the top and bottom of the tower, and found them to be 30° 16′ and 20° 20′. Required, the height of the tower. 53. A straight line, measured along the bank of a river, was 800 links, and at its extremities the angles contained by it and straight lines directed to a tree on an opposite bank were 60° 35' and 70° 18'. What is the breadth of the river? 51. A horse is fastened upon a common with a x+y+z=21 and z. y Notices of Books. Religion and Education in Relation to the People. By John Alfred Langford. London: John Chapman. All thoughtful and earnest men must of necessity take deep interest in the movements and struggles of those who are striving to express the thought that seems at the heart of every true Englishman at the present day, whether in religion, education, or social reform. It matters not to what party we belong, our duty still remains the same--to watch with patience the unwearied exertions of the men who are at present striving to express the wants of the people at large; and, above all, to spare them the silly speeches which it is usual for people of vapid understandings to utter concerning them. That there should be much misunder standing concerting present movements was to be expected; that all who talk of the inatter are not willing to look its difficulties fairly in the face may also be conceived; and that charity should be at the heart of every man, though very desirable, is perhaps more than the most sanguine can hope. On the one hand, we hear the words "infidel, sceptic, unbeliever," &c.; on the other, "bigot, fanatic, and impostor." That men should stoop to such an undignified course is to be regretted; yet, leaving all these things to die of their own inanity, we turn to the more pleasant task of listening to those who are willing, without vituperation, to say what they believe- to give utterance to their hopes in a calin, dispassionate mood, not hoodwinking the truth even when it is unpleasant; "for in proportion to the importance of a discussion is the necessity for plain and honest speaking. If the welfare of a nation rests on the proper investigation of a subject, and the consequent practical results, silence is a moral cowardice, and fear a disgrace." So far we think our author has given his reasons for appearing before the public. That he has spoken what many men think will readily be seen by those who may consider the book worthy of a perusal The cause of religion and education will, assuredly, not suffer for its appearance; and we think many, if not agreeing with the author, will thank him for having spoken out so plainly his own thoughts, as well as having brought into so small a compass the opinions of the different writers on the subjects here discussed. As a specimen of the contents of the book, we beg to offer the following selections for the consideration of our thoughtful readers:— "Believing firmly in the necessity of religion, and that man but half fulfils the purpose of his existence unless, after mature consideration of the evidence offered, and a full consciousness of £3 power to answer the great wants of the soul, he conscientiously and avowedly accent some form of faith, some solution of the great problem of being, its responsibilities and demands; it is of the most vital importance that we ascertain the nature of the faith which we accept." "For myself, it is absolutely necessary that I should answer the great and solemu problems of life and death, of time and eternity. Thus I would say that religion is a life, and not a dogma-a being, and not a theory." "What right have I to say to a man who differs from me, I tolerate you? Full recognition of his right so to differ, and not toleration of in under that difference, is the due of every man." "In a word, education is the preparing of man for all the relations of life, and the fulfilment of all the duties which he owes to society-the perfecting of the whole by the previous perfection of the individual. ' "Thus the condition of education in Englandthough exciting great attention, and calling forth the closest consideration and the most earnest advocacy of the most thoughtful of the community, and presenting more encouraging aspects to its friends than at any previous period in our history-is far from being in a satisfactory state and the ignorance is deep, far-spread, and de plorable-at once a disgrace to our wealth, ear usual practical character, and our national fame as a civilized and christian people." Rhetoric. BY THE AUTHOR OF "THE ART OF REASONING." No. XX.-FIGURATIVE EXPRESSION-concluded. FIGURES OF IMAGINATION. Species II.-Substitutive. Ir is very difficult, indeed, to demarcate clearly the several species and individuals which compose the usual catalogue of rhetorical tropes and figures; and this becomes especially difficult of attainment when but "thin partitions do the bounds divide." The substitutive figures do not express the real and intended idea at once and categorically, but are, in general, of an allusive character, and merely refer to it rather than give it complete and adequate expression. It will be perceived from this description, for it can hardly be called a definition, that metaphor and allegory might be, in a certain sense, included in this species; but as the idea of resemblance seemed to us to form their specific character, and their substitutive power to be more of an accidental property, we have placed them in that species which comprehends resemblant figures. In soine of the members of the species of which we are now about to treat the idea of resemblance finds place also; hut here the conditions are reversed, substitution being the specific property, and resemblance being merely an accidental peculiarity. The rationale of the substitutive figures may be found in many of the principles of the human mind. 1st. The mere allusion to a thing piques curiosity, and makes the mind more eager to follow out the thought. 2nd. Giving a clue to, or a hint of, a thought, and allowing the readers or hearers to show their acumen and discernment in discovering the whole meaning, flatters their vanity, and makes them invest the thought with greater importance than it would otherwise perhaps merit, or at least than it would, in all likelihood, receive. 3rd. Sometimes the mind cannot bear to talk coolly of things which affect it much, and hence it often substitutes a part of the thought only as allusive to the whole. 4th. Elliptical brevity occasionally commands us only to give such hints as shall suggest a given train of thought, but not exhaust it. On these, amongst other grounds, we may maintain the perfect propriety and eligibility of the substitutive figures of speech; and brief characterization above given will, we hope, be found to contain all that is necessary to the comprehension of the use of these figures, except the subsequent definitions and examples of the individual members of this species, viz.: 1. Metonymy substitutes the name of one object for that of another which is related to it, either by some degree of mutual dependence, or is otherwise naturally or accidentally connected with it, and capable of suggesting it; thus it uses, first, the cause for the effect, and vice versû; secondly, the abstract for the concrete; thirdly, the form for the matter; fourthly, the instrument for the agent; fifthly, the container for the thing contained; sixthly, the sign for the thing signified; and, seventhly, the adjunct, or accessory, for the subject, or essential; as, 1st. "Every rood of ground maintained its man." 2nd. He Ꮓ earned his bread by the sweat of his brow. 3rd. Hope deferred maketh the heart sick. 4th. No coin occupies my exchequer. 5th. He writes a beautiful hand. 6th. My purse is at your service. 7th.: "Lo, at the couch where infant beauty sleeps, Her silent watch the mournful mother keeps." The following extract from Bryant's beautiful poem, "Thanatopsis," will afford additional illustration: "So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan that moves To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of Death, Thou go not like the quarry-slave, at night Scourg'd to his dungeon; but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams." 2. Synecdoche employs the whole for a part, and vice versa. There are, however, several sorts of wholes, and consequently several sorts of parts, viz.-1st, a formal whole, i. e., the definition of a thing, or the indication of the genus and specific difference; 2nd, a physical whole, i. e., the matter and form, or substance and essential properties, of objects; 3rd, an integral whole that which consists of parts having a real existence in nature, when considered separately; 4th, a logical whole, i. e., a genus including several species, or a species comprising several individuals: thus, when we say, "Intemperance destroys more than the sword," we employ a part of an integral whole, if we employ "sword" as the representative of all warlike weapons; and when Pope says, "Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay," he uses a term indicative of an integral whole to signify a part only. In "The Lord Chancellor has resigned the seals," we employ a synecdoche-a physical whole-and express by the formal signs of office the matter, i. e., the real duties implied by their possession. "There leviathan 3. Antonomasia might almost be called a kind of synecdoche, for in it we employ an individual name as a cognomen for a whole class, or some remarkable circumstance connected with an individual for his name; e. g., Thomson, in speaking of Bacen, says "In one rich soul Plato, the Stagyrite, and Tully joined," where "Stagyrite" stands for Aristotle; and Byron, in the following line, employs the proper name, Arion, instead of musician: "Meantime some rude Arion's restless hand Wakes the brisk harmony that sailors love." 4. Metalepsis is a complication of figures of different kinds in one word or set of words. It expresses not the very idea itself, but another, which either leads the mind forward to it as a consequent, or causes the mind to revert to it as an antecedent; e. g., "He has forgotten me," intimates that he formerly knew me; and "England is in arms at the proposal," signifies that the people of England are dissatisfied with the proposal. "He whose nod Has tumbled feebler despots from their sway, A moment pauseth ere he lifts the rod; A little moment deigneth to delay; Soon will his legions sweep through these his way; The West must own the Scourger of the World." 5. Periphrasis, or circumlocution, is the expressing of an idea in more words than are necessary: thus, instead of saying, a man was twice married, we may express it as Turner, in his "History of the Anglo-Saxons," has done, viz., "He was twice a candidate for that endearing felicity which the connubial union never fails to reciprocate between amiable hearts and well-instructed minds." Again:-" Open to me, my sister, my love, my dove, my undefiled: for my head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of the night.”— Song of Solomon, v. 2. Species III-Amplificative. The amplificative figures of speech result from several conditions of the mental faculties, viz.:-1st. Intellectual calculation. Important thoughts cannot receive due attention if expressed sententiously, and are passed through the mind as "rapid as the light." In order to attract attention and fittingly impress the intellect, such ideas must be frequently repeated, not in slightly-differing phraseology and with little change of manner, but in all the beauty which imagination, thought, and emotion can conjointly yield, when they "Their magical variety diffuse." By this union new forms of statement and illustration enter readily into the mind, and thus that felicitous pleasantness is communicated to style which causes the ideas to be received with ardour and remembered with delight. 2nd. Imaginative activity. When strongly prepossessed in favour of any particular range of thought, we cannot avoid looking upon it with complacency and pleasure; we love to look upon it in every varying phase, and gratify ourselves by adorning our thoughts with every grace compatible with their nature. 3rd. Emotional excitement. Affection delights to linger on pleasant thoughts, and intense anger or hate predisposes the mind to rankle the barb in the wound which it has made. From any one of these conditions, or all of them conjoined, amplification may result; and yet we consider that we have given the amplificative figures their proper place in our classification, inasmuch as the imagination furnishes the chief materials of which they are composed. 1. Anaphora extends a sentence by the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of each of several clauses; e. g.: "And feel I, Death! no joy from thought of thee! Death the great counsellor, who man inspires Death the deliverer, who rescues man! Death the rewarder, who the rescued crowns! Death that absolves my birth-a curse without it! Rich Death that realizes all my cares, Toils, virtues, hopes-without it a chimera! "Young's Night Thoughts," III. 2. Anadiplosis repeats at the commencement of a clause the word or phrase with which the preceding clause terminated; e. g. :— 3. Analepsis contains a grammatical redundancy; it is a means of recalling to recollection the construction of the prior portion of a sentence before proceeding to complete it; e. g., Health, virtue, industry-these are the elements of happiness. 4. Apposition signifies the placing of an explaining or characterizing noun or phrase after a noun or phrase, when the explaining noun or phrase retains the same grammatical case as that which precedes it, and is not joined to the antecedent noun by a connecting word; e. g., Music, poetry, painting, sculpture-the aesthetic arts—are the results of the conjoint operation of genius and industry. 5. Epanalepsis is the name given to the repetition of the same word at the end of a clause or sentence as that with which it begun; e. g., Sin stains the soul; forsake ye, therefore, sin. Again:-Ancestry only ennobles the man who adds honour to his ancestry. 6. Epanaphora, or Symploce, is a figure in which several clauses or sentences have the same beginning and ending; e. g., Vice may, for a moment, yield us pleasure; but rice will too surely ever afterwards destroy pleasure. 7. Epiphora is when several clauses or sentences have the same word or phrase for their terminations; e. g., We must all encounter death; we need not all fear death; some of us may be made happy by death; but how many will be led into the depths of misery by death? 8. Climax is the gradual progression of the utterance of thought in intensity and force. One remark is made, another and another follow in succession, each more and more exactly approximating to the proper expression of the idea with which the mind is filled, and for which it can scarcely find adequate utterance.* "But 'midst the crowd, the hum, the shock of men, To hear, to see, to feel, and to possess, And roam along, the world's tired denizen, Of all that flatter'd, follow'd, sought, or sued; Byron. See a beautiful example of climax in the oration of Marc Antony, already referred to. |